Management Options for Ixodes ricinus-Associated Pathogens: A Review of Prevention Strategies

Abstract

Ticks are important human and animal parasites and vectors of many infectious disease agents. Control of tick activity is an effective tool to reduce the risk of contracting tick-transmitted diseases. The castor bean tick (Ixodes ricinus) is the most common tick species in Europe. It is also a vector of the causative agents of Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis, which are two of the most important arthropod-borne diseases in Europe. In recent years, increases in tick activity and incidence of tick-borne diseases have been observed in many European countries. These increases are linked to many ecological and anthropogenic factors such as landscape management, climate change, animal migration, and increased popularity of outdoor activities or changes in land usage. Tick activity is driven by many biotic and abiotic factors, some of which can be effectively managed to decrease risk of tick bites. In the USA, recommendations for landscape management, tick host control, and tick chemical control are well-defined for the applied purpose of reducing tick presence on private property. In Europe, where fewer studies have assessed tick management strategies, the similarity in ecological factors influencing vector presence suggests that approaches that work in USA may also be applicable. In this article we review key factors driving the tick exposure risk in Europe to select those most conducive to management for decreased tick-associated risk.

Keywords: Ixodes ricinus; tick; tick management; tick-borne diseases.

Figure 1

Ticks in Europe: Distribution of six medically and veterinary important tick species in Europe is depicted. The figure shows geographic locations where important species have been reported (as indicated by colored dots) and was prepared according to data from Estrada-Peña et al. [1].

Figure 2

Tick management strategy: Tick activity and risk associated with TBPs can be managed using a broad variety of approaches. These include direct reduction of tick populations using chemical or natural-origin acaricides, tick pathogens (e.g., fungi), or encouraging tick predators. Further, tick activity can be decreased by limiting availability of potential animal hosts (e.g., rodents or ungulates) and by creating tick-hostile environments (dry, sunlit areas lacking leaf litter and other vegetal debris) which limit tick survival and reproduction. Finally, TAR can be decreased by adhering to proper practices (wearing long clothes, using tick repellents, checking body after visiting tick-infested areas and prompt removal of all attached ticks) as well as basic public health (vaccination against TBEV, medical consultation immediately after appearing of any possible marks of infection by a TBP). Green arrows show pathways important in tick life cycle; red arrows show possible avenues of TBP transmission.