Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2020 Mar 19;21(6):2123.
doi: 10.3390/ijms21062123.

Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones?

Jiska Ristori  1 , Carlotta Cocchetti  1 , Alessia Romani  1 , Francesca Mazzoli  1 , Linda Vignozzi  1 , Mario Maggi  2 , Alessandra Daphne Fisher  1
Affiliations
Review

Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones?

Jiska Ristori et al. Int J Mol Sci. .

Abstract

The complex process of sexual differentiation is known to be influenced by biological and environmental determinants. The present review has the aim of summarizing the most relevant studies on the biological basis of sexual development, and in particular, it focuses on the impact of sex hormones and genetic background on the development of sexual differentiation and gender identity. The authors conducted a search of published studies on Medline (from January 1948 to December 2019). The evidence suggests that the sexual dimorphic brain could be the anatomical substrate of psychosexual development, on which gonadal hormones may have a shaping role during prenatal and pubertal periods. Additionally, according to several heritability studies, genetic components may have a role, but a promising candidate gene has not been identified. Even though growing evidence underlines the primary role of biological factors on psychosexual development, further studies are necessary to better explain their complex interactions.

Keywords: brain sexual dimorphism; gender identity; genes; hormones; sexual differentiation.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

    1. Luders E., Sánchez F.J., Gaser C., Toga A.W., Narr K.L., Hamilton L.S., Vilain E. Regional gray matter variation in male-to-female transsexualism. Neuroimage. 2009;46:904–907. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.048. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Ngun T.C., Gharamani N., Sanchez F.J., Bocklandt S., Vilain E. The genetics of sex differences in brain and behavior. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2011;32:227–246. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.10.001. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Collazzoni A., Ciocca G., Limoncin E., Marucci C., Mollaioli D., Di Sante S., Di Lorenzo G., Niolu C., Siracusano A., Maggi M., et al. Mating strategies and sexual functioning in personality disorders: A comprehensive review of literature. Sex. Med. Rev. 2017;5:414–428. doi: 10.1016/j.sxmr.2017.03.009. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Berenbaum S.A., Beltz A.M. Sexual differentiation of human behavior: Effects of prenatal and pubertal organizational hormones. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2011;32:183–200. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2011.03.001. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Hines M. Brain Gender. Oxford University Press; New York, NY, USA: 2005.