Analysis of stones formed in the human gall bladder and kidney using advanced spectroscopic techniques

Abstract

Stone diseases (gallstones and kidney stones) are extremely painful and often cause death. The prime aim of biomedical research in this area has been determination of factors resulting in stone formation inside the gallbladder and urinary tract. Many theories have been put forward to explain the mechanism of stone formation and their growth; however, their complete cycle of pathogenesis is still under debate. Several factors are responsible for stone formation; however, much emphasis is placed on the determination of elemental and molecular composition of the stones. In the present review article, we describe different kinds of spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS), and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and highlight their use in the analysis of stone diseases. We have summarized work done on gallstones and kidney stones using these advanced techniques particularly over the last 10 years. We have also briefly elaborated the basics of stone formations inside the human body and their complications for a better understanding of the subject.

Keywords: And LIBS; EDXRF; FTIR; Gallstones; Kidney stones; TOF-SIMS; WDXRF.

Fig. 1

(a) Chemical structure of cholesterol and (b) bilirubin

Fig. 2

Pathogenesis of cholesterol, mixed and pigment gallstones and factors affecting their formation and growth

Fig. 3

Classification of kidney stones based on their chemical composition

Fig. 4

General concept and steps in kidney stone formation

Fig. 5

Schematic diagram of wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (WDXRF)

Fig. 6

FTIR spectra of gallstone samples (G1, G2, G3). Figure adapted from Jaswal et al., Lasers Med. Sci., 31, 573–579, 2016, with the permission from Springer Nature

Fig. 7

Typical wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectra of gallstones (GS1–GS5) in different energy region from (a) 0.25 to 0.75 keV indicating the presence of C and O; (b) 0.5 to 1.5 keV for the presence of O, Na, and Mg; (c) 1.8 to 3.2 keV for the presence of P, S, and Cl; (d) 3.26 to 4.26 keV for the presence of K and Ca; and (e) 5 to 18 keV for the presence of Br, Cu, Fe, Mn, K, and Sr. Figure adapted from Jaswal et al., X-Ray Spectrom., 48, 178–187, 2019, with the permission from Wiley & Sons Inc.

Fig. 8

A typical WD-XRF spectra of struvite stone (KS2) obtained from WD-XRF spectrometer. Figure adapted from Singh et al., X-Ray Spectrom., 46, 283-291, 2017, with the permission from Wiley & Sons Inc.

Fig. 9

Relative concentration of some of the elements of oxalate type and struvite stones. Figure adapted from Singh et al., X-Ray Spectrom., 46, 283-291, 2017, with the permission from Wiley & Sons Inc.

Fig. 10

LIBS spectra from the center, shell, and surface of the first kidney stone. Figure adapted from Singh et al., Lasers Med. Sci., 24, 749–759, 200, with the permission from Springer Nature

Fig. 11

SP–LIBS spectra showing different chemical elements present in the kidney stone sample in the (a) 360–440, (b) 620–700, and (c) 720–800 nm wavelength regions. Figure adapted from Khalil et al., Appl. Opt., 54, 2123–2131, 2015, with the permission from Optical Society of America

Fig. 12

Temporal evolution of electron density (Ne) for three different kidney stones. Inset, Stark broadening profile of the atomic transition line of Ca(I) at 422 nm used to estimate the electron density. Solid points represent the experimental data and the smooth curves are the Lorenzian fits. Figure adapted from Khalil et al., Appl. Opt., 54, 2123–2131, 2015, with the permission from Optical Society of America