Past and current biological factors affecting malaria in the low transmission setting of Botswana: A review

Abstract

Malaria continues to be one of the top infectious agents contributing to morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Annually, Botswana accounts only for a small proportion of cases (<<1%). Despite significantly reduced incidence rate, the country still experiences sporadic outbreaks that hamper the goal of malaria elimination. This review evaluated previous and current biological factors that impact malaria in Botswana, specifically focussing on the vectors, the parasite and the host. This was accomplished via a literature review evaluating these variables in Botswana. Current literature suggests that Anopheles arabiensis is the main malaria vector in the country. Several other potential vectors have been found widely distributed throughout Botswana in high numbers, yet remain largely unstudied with regards to their contribution to the country's malaria burden. We also report the most up to date list of all Anopheles species that have been found in Botswana. Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for the vast majority of symptomatic malaria in the country and some drug resistance markers have been documented for this species. Plasmodium vivax has been reported in asymptomatic subjects, even though a large proportion of the Botswana population appears to be Duffy antigen negative. Very little is known about the true distribution of P. vivax and no point of care testing infrastructure for this species exists in Botswana, making it difficult to tailor treatment to address possible recrudescence or relapse. Due to a genetically diverse population with a substantial Khoisan contribution into the Bantu genetic background, several phenotypes that potentially impact prevalence and severity of malaria exist within the country. These include sickle cell trait, Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase deficiency, and Duffy negativity. This review highlights the information that currently exists on malaria in Botswana. It also postulates that a comprehensive understanding of these aforementioned biological factors may help to explain malaria persistence in Botswana.

Keywords: Anopheles; Botswana; Human genetics; Malaria; Plasmodium; Vectors.

Fig. 1

Map of Africa showing Botswana's geographical position and malaria cases over an 18 year period. Years 2000–2013 (World Health Organization, 2015a), 2014–2018 (World Health Organization, 2019).

Fig. 2

Map showing predicted malaria incidence in Botswana. The map was kindly provided by the Botswana Ministry of Health and Wellness.

Fig. 3

Flowchart of the literature search/review strategy.

Fig. 4

Published potential/known malaria vectors' distribution in Botswana (Abdulla-Khan, 1995; Chirebvu et al., 2016; Cornel et al., 2018; Kgoroebutswe et al., 2020; Koekemoer et al., 1998; Kyalo et al., 2017; Pachka et al., 2016; Tawe et al., 2017).