Recent Trends in Electrochemical Sensors for Vital Biomedical Markers Using Hybrid Nanostructured Materials

Abstract

This work provides a succinct insight into the recent developments in electrochemical quantification of vital biomedical markers using hybrid metallic composite nanostructures. After a brief introduction to the biomarkers, five types of crucial biomarkers, which require timely and periodical monitoring, are shortlisted, namely, cancer, cardiac, inflammatory, diabetic and renal biomarkers. This review emphasizes the usage and advantages of hybrid nanostructured materials as the recognition matrices toward the detection of vital biomarkers. Different transduction methods (fluorescence, electrophoresis, chemiluminescence, electrochemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy) reported for the biomarkers are discussed comprehensively to present an overview of the current research works. Recent advancements in the electrochemical (amperometric, voltammetric, and impedimetric) sensor systems constructed with metal nanoparticle-derived hybrid composite nanostructures toward the selective detection of chosen vital biomarkers are specifically analyzed. It describes the challenges involved and the strategies reported for the development of selective, sensitive, and disposable electrochemical biosensors with the details of fabrication, functionalization, and applications of hybrid metallic composite nanostructures.

Keywords: biomarkers; electrochemical biosensors; hybrid nanocomposites; hybrid nanostructures; recognition elements.

Figure 1

Electrochemical detection of vital biomarkers using the advanced hybrid nanostructured materials—a schematic representation.

Figure 2

Fluorescent detection of PSA using A) 5‐FAM labeled peptide/Fe₃O₄@SiO₂–Au nanocomposite. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 264 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier. B) Fe₃O₄@PEI@QDs composite. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 265 ]} Copyright 2019, Elsevier. C) Chemiluminescent detection of thrombin using HG‐DNAzyme/T‐Apt/SiO₂@GO@CF composite. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 266 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier. D) Electrochemiluminescent detection of CEA using PDDA–rGO/ZnSe@ZnS QDs composite. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 267 ]} Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Figure 3

A) SPR detection of cTnI using Fe₃O₄ MNPs on Au nanorods. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 284 ]} Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society. Selective detection of cTnI using B) Ag^MB@Au, Ag^NBA@Au, and Ag^R6G@AuNPs as the SERS probes. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 293 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier. C) Silica encapsulated Ag–DTNB nanoparticles as SERS nanotags. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 294 ]} Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. D) Ag–Au nanostars@4‐MBA as SERS nanotags. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 295 ]} Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.

Figure 4

Strategies applied for the electrochemical detection of PSA using A) PtCu@rGO/g‐C₃N₄| nanoAu–GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 301 ]} Copyright 2016, Elsevier. B) M‐Pd@Pt/NH₂‐GS|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 302 ]} Copyright 2016, Elsevier. C) Cu₂O@CeO₂–Au|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 303 ]} Copyright 2016, Elsevier. D) Pd@Cu₂O NPs|Au–NH₂–GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 304 ]} Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 5

Fabrication of electrochemical sensors for the detection of CEA with the aid of A) Ag/MoS₂/rGO|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 204 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier. B) MoS₂–PBNCs–antiCEA|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 315 ]} Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. C) Fe₃O₄/Au@Ag/Ni²⁺|GS. Reproduced with permission. ^{[ 316 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier. D) Fe₃O₄@MnO₂‐Pt‐Ab₂|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 317 ]} Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.

Figure 6

Electrochemical sensor interfaces reported for the detection of AFP using A) Au@MPTES–GS–Ab1–BSA|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 322 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier. B) N‐GS–AuNP–Chit–anti‐AFP–BSA|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 323 ]} Copyright 2017, Springer‐Verlag GmbH Austria. C) MO/CNT‐Au/Ab2‐Ag‐Ab1‐AuPt‐VG|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 206 ]} Copyright 2019, Elsevier. D) Hep‐PGA‐PPy NPs|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 324 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

Figure 7

Sensor systems reported for the electrochemical detection of NSE based on A) polypyrrole–polythionine–nanoAu–Ab1–BSA|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 327 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier. B) H‐rGO–Thi–Au–Ab1–BSA|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 328 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier. C) NH₂–G/Thi/AuNPs|μPADs. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 329 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier. D) Polymer–Au/Pd‐SA‐AuNP|SPCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 330 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

Figure 8

Electrochemical sensors reported for the detection of cardiac troponin I using A) GO–Ph–AuNP–Ab|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 345 ]} Copyright 2016, Elsevier. B) G‐QDs–PAMAM–Ab1|4‐ATP|SPGE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 347 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier. C) AuNP–PEG–MH–CFYSHSFHENWPS|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 348 ]} Copyright 2016, Elsevier. D) Graphene–MIP–MWCNT–Chit–Glut|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 349 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

Figure 9

Construction of different electrochemical sensors for thrombin using A) Cu₂O‐nanoAu–G‐quadruplex‐Ab1|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 379 ]} Copyright 2018, Elsevier. B) Hemin/G4–peptide–PtNTs@rGO|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 199 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier. C) PtNPs@Co(II)MOFs@PtNPs|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 198 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier. D) G‐quadruplex/hemin/HRP/AuPd/poly(o‐phenylenediamine)|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 380 ]} Copyright 2017, Springer‐Verlag Wien.

Figure 10

Different approaches toward the electrochemical detection of nitric oxide using A) AuNPs−3DGH|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 393 ]} Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. B) Amine‐MoS₂–GO–Myo|Cys–gold. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 394 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier. C) ZnO–polyPBA‐TT‐rGO|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 395 ]} Copyright 2017, Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. D) rGO–CeO₂|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 396 ]} Copyright 2015, Elsevier.

Figure 11

Fabrication approaches of electrochemical sensors for TNF‐α using A) nanoAu–CNT–IL/Ab|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 406 ]} Copyright 2015, Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. B) Ag/Pt–CNTs|SPCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 407 ]} Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry. C) C60–CNT–IL/Ab|SPE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 408 ]} Copyright 2015, Elsevier. D) Fe₃O₄–nanoAu–DNA|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 409 ]} Copyright 2017, Springer‐Verlag GmbH Austria.

Figure 12

Strategies employed in the fabrication of CRP immunosensors using A) Ab1S/GA/Au@BSA|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 415 ]} Copyright 2015, Elsevier. B) Cu₃(PO₄)₂/PDA/Ab2|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 416 ]} Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. C) rGO–AuNP|ITO. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 417 ]} Copyright 2016, Elsevier. D) Ab1/AuNPs|GCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 418 ]} Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

Figure 13

Immunosensors reported for the electrochemical analysis of IL‐6 using A) Ph‐NH₂ Au‐ph‐GO‐PPC/Ab1|gold. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 426 ]} Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. B) Ab₂/Ag/Ab₁|GNR‐SPCE. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 427 ]} Copyright 2014, Elsevier. C) NanoAu–IL‐6 aptamer|Alkanethiol–gold. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 428 ]} Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry. D) IL‐6/Ab₁/AuNP–graphene–silica|ITO. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 429 ]} Copyright 2014, Elsevier.