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Meta-Analysis
. 2020 Jul 17;7(7):CD011302.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011302.pub2.

Wheat flour fortification with iron for reducing anaemia and improving iron status in populations

Martha S Field  1 , Prasanna Mithra  2 , Diana Estevez  3 , Juan Pablo Peña-Rosas  3
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Wheat flour fortification with iron for reducing anaemia and improving iron status in populations

Martha S Field et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Update in

Abstract

Background: Anaemia is a condition where the number of red blood cells (and consequently their oxygen-carrying capacity) is insufficient to meet the body's physiologic needs. Fortification of wheat flour is deemed a useful strategy to reduce anaemia in populations.

Objectives: To determine the benefits and harms of wheat flour fortification with iron alone or with other vitamins and minerals on anaemia, iron status and health-related outcomes in populations over two years of age.

Search methods: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and other databases up to 4 September 2019.

Selection criteria: We included cluster- or individually randomised controlled trials (RCT) carried out among the general population from any country aged two years and above. The interventions were fortification of wheat flour with iron alone or in combination with other micronutrients. Trials comparing any type of food item prepared from flour fortified with iron of any variety of wheat were included.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently screened the search results and assessed the eligibility of studies for inclusion, extracted data from included studies and assessed risk of bias. We followed Cochrane methods in this review.

Main results: Our search identified 3048 records, after removing duplicates. We included nine trials, involving 3166 participants, carried out in Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Kuwait, Phillipines, Sri Lanka and South Africa. The duration of interventions varied from 3 to 24 months. One study was carried out among adult women and one trial among both children and nonpregnant women. Most of the included trials were assessed as low or unclear risk of bias for key elements of selection, performance or reporting bias. Three trials used 41 mg to 60 mg iron/kg flour, two trials used less than 40 mg iron/kg and three trials used more than 60 mg iron/kg flour. One trial employed various iron levels based on type of iron used: 80 mg/kg for electrolytic and reduced iron and 40 mg/kg for ferrous fumarate. All included studies contributed data for the meta-analyses. Seven studies compared wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour, three studies compared wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour and two studies compared wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with the same micronutrients (but not iron). No studies included a 'no intervention' comparison arm. None of the included trials reported any other adverse side effects (including constipation, nausea, vomiting, heartburn or diarrhoea). Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added) Wheat flour fortification with iron alone may have little or no effect on anaemia (risk ratio (RR) 0.81, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.61 to 1.07; 5 studies; 2200 participants; low-certainty evidence). It probably makes little or no difference on iron deficiency (RR 0.43, 95% CI 0.17 to 1.07; 3 studies; 633 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) and we are uncertain about whether wheat flour fortified with iron increases haemoglobin concentrations by an average 3.30 (g/L) (95% CI 0.86 to 5.74; 7 studies; 2355 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No trials reported data on adverse effects in children, except for risk of infection or inflammation at the individual level. The intervention probably makes little or no difference to risk of Infection or inflammation at individual level as measured by C-reactive protein (CRP) (moderate-certainty evidence). Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added) Wheat flour fortified with iron, in combination with other micronutrients, may or may not decrease anaemia (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.69 to 1.31; 2 studies; 322 participants; low-certainty evidence). It makes little or no difference to average risk of iron deficiency (RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.54 to 1.00; 3 studies; 387 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) and may or may not increase average haemoglobin concentrations (mean difference (MD) 3.29, 95% CI -0.78 to 7.36; 3 studies; 384 participants; low-certainty evidence). No trials reported data on adverse effects in children. Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron) Given the very low certainty of the evidence, the review authors are uncertain about the effects of wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron) in reducing anaemia (RR 0.24, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.71; 1 study; 127 participants; very low-certainty evidence) and in reducing iron deficiency (RR 0.42, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.97; 1 study; 127 participants; very low-certainty evidence). The intervention may make little or no difference to the average haemoglobin concentration (MD 0.81, 95% CI -1.28 to 2.89; 2 studies; 488 participants; low-certainty evidence). No trials reported data on the adverse effects in children. Eight out of nine trials reported source of funding with most having multiple sources. Funding source does not appear to have distorted the results in any of the assessed trials.

Authors' conclusions: Eating food items containing wheat flour fortified with iron alone may have little or no effect on anaemia and probably makes little or no difference in iron deficiency. We are uncertain on whether the intervention with wheat flour fortified with iron increases haemoglobin concentrations improve blood haemoglobin concentrations. Consuming food items prepared from wheat flour fortified with iron, in combination with other micronutrients, has little or no effect on anaemia, makes little or no difference to iron deficiency and may or may not improve haemoglobin concentrations. In comparison to fortified flour with micronutrients but no iron, wheat flour fortified with iron with other micronutrients, the effects on anaemia and iron deficiency are uncertain as certainty of the evidence has been assessed as very low. The intervention may make little or no difference to the average haemoglobin concentrations in the population. None of the included trials reported any other adverse side effects. The effects of this intervention on other health outcomes are unclear.

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Conflict of interest statement

Martha Field ‐ received partial financial support from the Department of Nutrition and Food Safety for this work.

Juan Pablo Peña‐Rosas ‐ the WHO receives partial financial support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition and Nutrition International to support its work in the area of nutrition, including the commissioning of systematic reviews of interventions for health throughout the life course.

Diana Estevez ‐ received a fellowship from the Department of Nutrition and Food Safety for this work. She was supported by the first multidisciplinary training programme on global nutrition policy for sustainable development in 2015 designed by the Latin American Society of Nutrition (SLAN), World Health Organization (WHO), Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the United Nations' World Food Programme (WFP) and Nutrition International (formerly Micronutrient Initiative).

Prasanna Mithra ‐ received partial financial support from the Department of Nutrition and Food Safety for this work.

Figures

1
1
WHO/CDC generic logic model for micronutrient interventions (with permission from WHO)
2
2
Study flow diagram.
3
3
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
4
4
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 1: Anaemia (defined as haemoglobin below WHO cut‐off for age and adjusted for altitude as appropriate)
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 2: Anaemia (subgroup: by prevalence of anaemia at baseline)
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 3: Anaemia (subgroup: by type or iron compound)
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 4: Anaemia (subgroup: by wheat flour available per capita)
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 5: Anaemia (subgroup: by malaria endemicity)
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 6: Anaemia (subgroup: by duration of intervention)
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 7: Anaemia (subgroup: by flour extraction rate)
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 8: Anaemia (subgroup: by amount of elemental iron added to flour)
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 9: Iron deficiency (as defined by study authors, based on a biomarker of iron status)
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 10: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by prevalence of anaemia at baseline)
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 11: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by type of iron compound)
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 12: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by wheat flour available per capita)
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 13: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by malaria endemicity)
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 14: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by duration of intervention)
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 15: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by flour extraction rate)
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 16: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by amount of elemental iron added to flour)
1.17
1.17. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 17: Haemoglobin concentration (g/L)
1.18
1.18. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 18: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by prevalence of anaemia at baseline (g/L))
1.19
1.19. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 19: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by type of iron compound (g/L))
1.20
1.20. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 20: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by wheat flour available per capita (g/L))
1.21
1.21. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 21: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by malaria endemicity (g/L))
1.22
1.22. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 22: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by duration of intervention (g/L))
1.23
1.23. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 23: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by flour extraction rate (g/L))
1.24
1.24. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 24: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by amount of elemental iron added to flour (g/L))
1.25
1.25. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 25: Diarrhoea (three liquid stools in a single day) (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
1.26
1.26. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 26: Respiratory infections (as measured by trialists) (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
1.27
1.27. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 27: All‐cause death (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
1.28
1.28. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 28: Infection or inflammation (CRP) (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
1.29
1.29. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 29: Height‐for‐age z‐score (in children)
1.30
1.30. Analysis
Comparison 1: Wheat flour fortified with iron alone versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 30: Cognitive development (in children)
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 1: Anaemia (defined as haemoglobin below WHO cut‐off for age and adjusted for altitude as appropriate)
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 2: Iron deficiency (as defined by study authors, based on a biomarker of iron status)
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 3: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by prevalence of anaemia at baseline)
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 4: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by type of iron compound)
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 5: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by wheat flour available per capita)
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 6: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by malaria endemicity)
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 7: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by duration of intervention)
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 8: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by flour extraction rate)
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 9: Iron deficiency (subgroup: by amount of elemental iron added to flour)
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 10: Haemoglobin concentration (g/L)
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 11: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by prevalence of anaemia at baseline(g/L))
2.12
2.12. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 12: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by type of iron compound (g/L))
2.13
2.13. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 13: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by wheat flour available per capita (g/L))
2.14
2.14. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 14: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by malaria endemicity (g/L))
2.15
2.15. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 15: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by duration of intervention (g/L))
2.16
2.16. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 16: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by flour extraction rate (g/L))
2.17
2.17. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 17: Haemoglobin concentration (subgroup: by amount of elemental iron added to flour (g/L))
2.18
2.18. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 18: Diarrhoea (three liquid stools in a single day) (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
2.19
2.19. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 19: Respiratory infections (as measured by trialists) (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
2.20
2.20. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 20: All‐cause death (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
2.21
2.21. Analysis
Comparison 2: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus unfortified wheat flour (no micronutrients added), Outcome 21: Infection or inflammation at individual level (as measured by urinary neopterin, C‐reactive protein or alpha‐1‐acid glycoprotein variant A)
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron), Outcome 1: Anaemia (defined as haemoglobin below WHO cut‐off for age and adjusted for altitude as appropriate)
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron), Outcome 2: Iron deficiency
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron), Outcome 3: Haemoglobin concentration (g/L)
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron), Outcome 4: Diarrhoea (three liquid stools in a single day) (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron), Outcome 5: Respiratory infections (as measured by trialists) (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron), Outcome 6: All‐cause death (only in children 2 to 11 years of age)
3.7
3.7. Analysis
Comparison 3: Wheat flour fortified with iron in combination with other micronutrients versus fortified wheat flour with same micronutrients (but not iron), Outcome 7: Infection or inflammation at individual level (as measured by urinary neopterin, C‐reactive protein or alpha‐1‐acid glycoprotein variant A)
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References

References to studies included in this review

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Barbosa 2012 (C) {published data only}
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References to studies excluded from this review

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Giorgini 2001 {published data only}
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Granado 2013 {published data only}
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Heijblom 2007 {published data only}
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Imhoff‐Kunsch 2019 {published data only}
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Kamien 1975 {published data only}
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Layrisse 1996 {published data only}
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Malpeli 2013 {published data only}
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Zimmermann 2011 {published and unpublished data}
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References to ongoing studies

Arcot 2017 {unpublished data only}
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Tetanye 2018 {unpublished data only}
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