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Review
. 2020 Nov:118:89-96.
doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.018. Epub 2020 Jul 21.

Human gender development

Melissa Hines  1
Affiliations
Review

Human gender development

Melissa Hines. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020 Nov.

Abstract

Human gender-related behavior/psychology is shaped by a developmental system that involves numerous influences interacting over time. Understanding of the full range of elements in the system and how they interact is currently incomplete. The available evidence suggests, however, that early exposure to testosterone, postnatal socialization, e.g., by parents and peers, and self-socialization related to cognitive understanding of gender are important elements. This article focuses on prenatal and early neonatal influences of testosterone on gender-related psychological/behavioral outcomes, and contextualizes these hormonal influences within an understanding of socialization influences. There is consistent evidence that early testosterone exposure influences childhood gender role behavior, including sex-typical toy play, as well as gender identity and sexual orientation. Evidence for similar hormonal influences on spatial ability and on traits related to autism, or autistic spectrum disorder, is inconsistent. Evidence from girls exposed to elevated testosterone prenatally suggests that they experience alterations in processes of external socialization, as well as self-socialization, and that these, along with early testosterone exposure, shape gender-related outcomes.

Keywords: Androgen; Autism; Autistic spectrum disorder; Autistic traits; Childhood gender role behavior; Gender; Gender identity; Gender role behavior; Mental rotation; Sex; Sexual orientation; Spatial ability; Testosterone.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations of interest

None.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Effect size (d) values for human behavioral/psychological characteristics that show relatively large and reliable sex differences, and that have been studied in relation to early testosterone exposure. The effect size for the sex difference in height is included as a familiar comparator.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Illustration of the overlap in distributions of scores for males and females for psychological/behavioral characteristics that show large and reliable sex differences. The overlap for height is included as a familiar comparator.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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