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Meta-Analysis
. 2020 Jul 28;7(7):CD011504.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011504.pub2.

Community-level interventions for improving access to food in low- and middle-income countries

Solange Durao  1 , Marianne E Visser  2 , Vundli Ramokolo  3 , Julicristie M Oliveira  4 , Bey-Marrié Schmidt  1 , Yusentha Balakrishna  5 , Amanda Brand  2 , Elizabeth Kristjansson  6 , Anel Schoonees  2
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Community-level interventions for improving access to food in low- and middle-income countries

Solange Durao et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Update in

Abstract

Background: After decades of decline since 2005, the global prevalence of undernourishment reverted and since 2015 has increased to levels seen in 2010 to 2011. The prevalence is highest in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), especially Africa and Asia. Food insecurity and associated undernutrition detrimentally affect health and socioeconomic development in the short and long term, for individuals, including children, and societies. Physical and economic access to food is crucial to ensure food security. Community-level interventions could be important to increase access to food in LMICs.

Objectives: To determine the effects of community-level interventions that aim to improve access to nutritious food in LMICs, for both the whole community and for disadvantaged or at-risk individuals or groups within a community, such as infants, children and women; elderly, poor or unemployed people; or minority groups.

Search methods: We searched for relevant studies in 16 electronic databases, including trial registries, from 1980 to September 2019, and updated the searches in six key databases in February 2020. We applied no language or publication status limits.

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs), cluster randomised controlled trials (cRCTs) and prospective controlled studies (PCS). All population groups, adults and children, living in communities in LMICs exposed to community-level interventions aiming to improve food access were eligible for inclusion. We excluded studies that only included participants with specific diseases or conditions (e.g. severely malnourished children). Eligible interventions were broadly categorised into those that improved buying power (e.g. create income-generation opportunities, cash transfer schemes); addressed food prices (e.g. vouchers and subsidies); addressed infrastructure and transport that affected physical access to food outlets; addressed the social environment and provided social support (e.g. social support from family, neighbours or government).

Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently screened titles and abstracts, and full texts of potentially eligible records, against the inclusion criteria. Disagreements were resolved through discussion or arbitration by a third author, if necessary. For each included study, two authors independently extracted data and a third author arbitrated disagreements. However, the outcome data were extracted by one author and checked by a biostatistician. We assessed risk of bias for all studies using the Effective Practice and Organization of Care (EPOC) risk of bias tool for studies with a separate control group. We conducted meta-analyses if there was a minimum of two studies for interventions within the same category, reporting the same outcome measure and these were sufficiently homogeneous. Where we were able to meta-analyse, we used the random-effects model to incorporate any existing heterogeneity. Where we were unable to conduct meta-analyses, we synthesised using vote counting based on effect direction.

Main results: We included 59 studies, including 214 to 169,485 participants, and 300 to 124, 644 households, mostly from Africa and Latin America, addressing the following six intervention types (three studies assessed two different types of interventions). Interventions that improved buying power: Unconditional cash transfers (UCTs) (16 cRCTs, two RCTs, three PCSs): we found high-certainty evidence that UCTs improve food security and make little or no difference to cognitive function and development and low-certainty evidence that UCTs may increase dietary diversity and may reduce stunting. The evidence was very uncertain about the effects of UCTs on the proportion of household expenditure on food, and on wasting. Regarding adverse outcomes, evidence from one trial indicates that UCTs reduce the proportion of infants who are overweight. Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) (nine cRCTs, five PCSs): we found high-certainty evidence that CCTs result in little to no difference in the proportion of household expenditure on food and that they slightly improve cognitive function in children; moderate-certainty evidence that CCTs probably slightly improve dietary diversity and low-certainty evidence that they may make little to no difference to stunting or wasting. Evidence on adverse outcomes (two PCSs) shows that CCTs make no difference to the proportion of overweight children. Income generation interventions (six cRCTs, 11 PCSs): we found moderate-certainty evidence that income generation interventions probably make little or no difference to stunting or wasting; and low-certainty evidence that they may result in little to no difference to food security or that they may improve dietary diversity in children, but not for households. Interventions that addressed food prices: Food vouchers (three cRCTs, one RCT): we found moderate-certainty evidence that food vouchers probably reduce stunting; and low-certainty evidence that that they may improve dietary diversity slightly, and may result in little to no difference in wasting. Food and nutrition subsidies (one cRCT, three PCSs): we found low-certainty evidence that food and nutrition subsidies may improve dietary diversity among school children. The evidence is very uncertain about the effects on household expenditure on healthy foods as a proportion of total expenditure on food (very low-certainty evidence). Interventions that addressed the social environment: Social support interventions (one cRCT, one PCS): we found moderate-certainty evidence that community grants probably make little or no difference to wasting; low-certainty evidence that they may make little or no difference to stunting. The evidence is very uncertain about the effects of village savings and loans on food security and dietary diversity. None of the included studies addressed the intervention category of infrastructure changes. In addition, none of the studies reported on one of the primary outcomes of this review, namely prevalence of undernourishment.

Authors' conclusions: The body of evidence indicates that UCTs can improve food security. Income generation interventions do not seem to make a difference for food security, but the evidence is unclear for the other interventions. CCTs, UCTs, interventions that help generate income, interventions that help minimise impact of food prices through food vouchers and subsidies can potentially improve dietary diversity. UCTs and food vouchers may have a potential impact on reducing stunting, but CCTs, income generation interventions or social environment interventions do not seem to make a difference on wasting or stunting. CCTs seem to positively impact cognitive function and development, but not UCTs, which may be due to school attendance, healthcare visits and other conditionalities associated with CCTs.

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Conflict of interest statement

SD: none.

MV: none.

VR: none.

JO: none.

BS: none.

YB: none.

AB: none.

EK: none.

AS: none.

Figures

1
1
Food security logic model: how interventions influence food and nutritional security.
2
2
Study flow diagram.
3
3
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
4
4
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
5
5
Harvest plot: unconditional cash transfers.
6
6
Harvest plot: conditional cash transfers.
7
7
Harvest plot: income‐generation interventions.
8
8
Harvest plot: food vouchers.
9
9
Harvest plot: food and nutrition subsidies.
10
10
Harvest plot: social support interventions.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 1: Proportion of household expenditure on food
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 2: Proportion consuming > 1 meal/day
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 3: Food security scores
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 4: Dietary Diversity Score including composite food consumption score (FCS) (weighted)
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 5: Proportion with minimum dietary diversity
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 6: Proportion of food poverty (per capita daily caloric intake < 2122 calories)
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 7: Proportion stunted (height‐for‐age z‐score (HAZ) < ‐2SD)
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 8: HAZ
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 9: Weight‐for‐height z‐score (WHZ)
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 10: Weight‐for‐age z‐score (WAZ)
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 11: Haemoglobin concentration (g/dL)
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 12: Depression score (CES‐D scale)
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1: Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 13: Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 1: Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS)
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 2: Proportion stunted (height‐for‐age z‐score (HAZ) < ‐2SD) – RCTs
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 3: Proportion with severe stunting (HAZ < ‐3 SD) – RCTs
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 4: HAZ – RCTs
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 5: Proportion stunted (HAZ < ‐2 SD) – PCS
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 6: HAZ – PCS
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 7: Proportion wasted (weight‐for‐height z‐score (WHZ) < ‐2 SD) – RCTs
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 8: WHZ – RCTs
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 9: Proportion underweight (weight‐for‐age z‐score (WAZ) < ‐2SD) – RCTs
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 10: Proportion severely underweight (WAZ < ‐3 SD) – RCTs
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 11: WAZ – RCTs
2.12
2.12. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 12: BMI‐for‐age z‐score – PCS
2.13
2.13. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 13: Cognitive test scores – RCTs
2.14
2.14. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 14: Proportion reporting being ill in past 4 weeks/parents seeking care for illness past 2 weeks – RCTs
2.15
2.15. Analysis
Comparison 2: Conditional cash transfers (CCT) versus no intervention, Outcome 15: Overweight (BMI z‐score > 2 SD)_PCS
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 1: HFIAS – PCS
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 2: HDDS – RCTs
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 3: Minimum dietary diversity (MDD) – RCTs
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 4: HDDS – PCS
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 5: Proportion stunted (HAZ < ‐2 SD) – RCTs
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 6: HAZ – RCTs
3.7
3.7. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 7: Proportion wasted (WHZ < ‐2 SD) – RCTs
3.8
3.8. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 8: WHZ – RCTs
3.9
3.9. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 9: Percentage underweight – RCTs
3.10
3.10. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 10: WAZ – RCTs
3.11
3.11. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 11: Percentage underweight – PCS
3.12
3.12. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 12: Proportion of women underweight – RCTs
3.13
3.13. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 13: BMI – RCTs
3.14
3.14. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 14: Haemoglobin concentration (children) – RCTs
3.15
3.15. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 15: Haemoglobin concentration (women) – RCTs
3.16
3.16. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 16: Prevalence of anaemia (children) – RCTs
3.17
3.17. Analysis
Comparison 3: Income generation (IG) versus no intervention, Outcome 17: Prevalence of anaemia (women) – RCTs
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4: Food vouchers vs no intervention, Outcome 1: Food consumption score
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References

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    1. Huerta MC. Child health in rural Mexico: has PROGRESA reduced children's morbidity risks? Social Policy & Administration 2006;40(6):652-77.
    1. Rivera JA, Sotres-Alvarez D, Habicht J-P, Shamah T, Villalpando S. Impact of the Mexican program for education, health, and nutrition (PROGRESA) on rates of growth and anemia in infants and young children: a randomized effectiveness study. JAMA 2004;291(21):2563-70. - PubMed
Jensen 2011 {published data only}
    1. Jensen RT, Miller NH. Do consumer price subsidies really improve nutrition? Review of Economics and Statistics 2011;93(4):1205-23. - PMC - PubMed
Jodlowski 2016 {published data only}
    1. Jodlowski M, Winter-Nelson A, Baylis K, Goldsmith PD. Milk in the data: food security impacts from a livestock field experiment in Zambia. World Development 2016;77:99-114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.08.009] - DOI
Kandpal 2016 {published data only}
    1. Kandpal E, Alderman H, Friedman J, Filmer D, Onishi J, Avalos J. A conditional cash transfer program in the Philippines reduces severe stunting. Journal of Nutrition 2016;146(9):1793-800. [DOI: 10.3945/jn.116.233684] - DOI - PubMed
Kangmennaang 2017 {published data only}
    1. Kangmennaang J, Kerr RB, Lupafya E, Dakishoni L, Katundu M, Luginaah I. Impact of a participatory agroecological development project on household wealth and food security in Malawi. Food Security 2017;9(3):561-76.
Katz 2001 {published data only}
    1. Katz J, West KP, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Shakya TR, Khatry SK, et al. Impact of providing a small income on women's nutritional status and household food expenditures in rural Nepal. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2001;22(1):13-8.
Kennedy 1989 {published data only}
    1. Kennedy E. The effects of sugarcane production on food security, health, and nutrition in Kenya: a longitudinal analysis. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; 1989 December. Research report 78.
Kurdi 2019 {published data only}
    1. Kurdi S, Ghorpade Y, Ibrahim H. The Cash for Nutrition intervention in Yemen: impact evaluation study. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; 2019 April. Regional program working paper 19.
Kusuma 2017a {published data only}
    1. Kusuma D, Cohen J, McConnell M, Berman P. Can cash transfers improve determinants of maternal mortality? Evidence from the household and community programs in Indonesia. Social Science & Medicine 2016;163:10-20. - PubMed
    1. Kusuma D, McConnell M, Berman P, Cohen, J. The impact of household and community cash transfers on children's food consumption in Indonesia. Preventive Medicine 2017;100:152-8. - PubMed
Kusuma 2017b {published data only}
    1. Kusuma D, Cohen J, McConnell M, Berman P. Can cash transfers improve determinants of maternal mortality? Evidence from the household and community programs in Indonesia. Social Science & Medicine 2016;163:10-20. - PubMed
    1. Kusuma D, McConnell M, Berman P, Cohen, J. The impact of household and community cash transfers on children's food consumption in Indonesia. Preventive Medicine 2017;100:152-58. - PubMed
Leroy 2008 (PROGRESA) {published data only}
    1. Leroy JL, García-Guerra A, García R, Dominguez C, Rivera J, Neufeld LM. The Oportunidades program increases the linear growth of children enrolled at young ages in urban Mexico. Journal of Nutrition 2008;138(4):793-8. - PubMed
Lopez Arana 2016 {published data only}
    1. Attanasio O, Gómez LC, Heredia P, Vera-Hernandez M. The short-term impact of a conditional cash subsidy on child health and nutrition in Colombia. Centre for the Evaluation of Development Policies; 2005 December. The Institute for Fiscal Studies report summary: Familias 03.
    1. Attanasio O, Mesnard A. The impact of a conditional cash transfer programme on consumption in Colombia. Fiscal Studies 2006;27(4):421-42.
    1. Forde I, Chandola T, Garcia S, Marmot MG, Attanasio O. The impact of cash transfers to poor women in Colombia on BMI and obesity: prospective cohort study. International Journal of Obesity 2012;36(9):1209-14. [DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2011.234] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Lopez-Arana S, Avendano M, Forde I, Van Lenthe FJ, Burdorf, A. Conditional cash transfers and the double burden of malnutrition among children in Colombia: a quasi-experimental study. British Journal of Nutrition 2016;115(10):1780-9. [DOI: 10.1017/S0007114516000714] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Lopez-Arana S, Avendano M, Lenthe FJ, Burdorf A. The impact of a conditional cash transfer programme on determinants of child health: evidence from Colombia. Public Health Nutrition 2016;19(14):2629-2642. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980016000240] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Macours 2012 {published data only}
    1. Macours K, Schady N, Vakis R. Cash transfers, behavioral changes, and cognitive development in early childhood: evidence from a randomized experiment. American Economic Journal. Applied Economics 2012;4(2):247-73. [DOI: 10.1257/app.4.2.247] - DOI
Maluccio 2005 {published data only}
    1. Maluccio J, Flores R. Impact evaluation of a conditional cash transfer program: The Nicaraguan Red de Protección Social. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; 2005. FCND discussion paper.
Marquis 2018 {published data only}
    1. Marquis GS, Colecraft EK, Kanlisi R, Aidam BA, Atuobi-Yeboah A, Pinto C, et al. An agriculture-nutrition intervention improved children's diet and growth in a randomized trial in Ghana. Maternal & Child Nutrition 2018;14(s3):e12677. - PMC - PubMed
Merttens 2013 {published data only}
    1. Merttens F, Hurrell A, Marzi M, Attah R, Farhat M, Kardan A, et al. Kenya Hunger Safety Net Programme; monitoring and evaluation component: impact evaluation final report: 2009 to 2012. Oxford Policy Management; 2013.
Miller 2011 {published data only}
    1. Miller CM, Tsoka M, Reichert K. The impact of the Social Cash Transfer Scheme on food security in Malawi. Food Policy 2011;36(2):230-8.
    1. Miller CM. Cash transfers and economic growth: a mixed methods analysis of transfer recipients and business owners in Malawi. Poverty & Public Policy 2011;3(3):1-36. [DOI: 10.2202/1944-2858.1147] - DOI
    1. Strobbe F, Miller CM. Cash transfers in an epidemic context: the interaction of formal and informal support in rural Malawi. The World Bank; 2011 October. Policy research working paper 5824.
Murshed E Jahan 2011 {published data only}
    1. Murshed-E-Jahan K, Pemsl DE. The impact of integrated aquaculture–agriculture on small-scale farm sustainability and farmers' livelihoods: experience from Bangladesh. Agricultural Systems 2011;104(5):392-402. [DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2011.01.003] - DOI
Olney 2016 {published data only}
    1. Dillon A, Arsenault J, Olney D. Nutrient production and micronutrient gaps: evidence from agriculture-nutrition randomized control trial. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 2019;101:732-52.
    1. Dillon A, Bliznashka L, Olney D. Experimental evidence on post-program effects and spillovers from an agriculture-nutrition program. Econominc & Human Biology 2020;36:1008. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Olney D, Bilnashka L, Pedehombga A, Dillon A, Ruel M, Heckert J. Women's nutrition and empowerment are improved through participation in an integrated agriculture and nutrition program in Burkina Faso. The FASEB Journal 2015;29(S1):abstract. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.29.1_supplement.898.25] - DOI
    1. Olney DK, Bliznashka L, Pedehombga A, Dillon A, Ruel MT, Heckert J. A 2-year integrated agriculture and nutrition program targeted to mothers of young children in Burkina Faso reduces underweight among mothers and increases their empowerment: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Nutrition 2016;146(5):1109-17. [DOI: 10.3945/jn.115.224261] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Olney DK, Pedehombga A, Ruel MT, Dillon A. A 2-year integrated agriculture and nutritionand health behavior change communication program targeted to women in Burkina Faso reduces anemia, wasting, and diarrhea in children 3–12.9 months of age at baseline: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Nutrition 2015;145:1317–24. - PubMed
Osei 2017 {published data only}
    1. Osei A, Pandey P, Nielsen J, Pries A, Spiro D, Davis D, et al. Combining home garden, poultry, and nutrition education program targeted to families with young children improved anemia among children and anemia and underweight among non pregnant women in Nepal. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 2017;38(1):49-64. - PubMed
Pellerano 2014 {published data only}
    1. Pellerano L, Moratti M, Jakobsen M, Bajgar M, Barca V. Child Grants Programme impact evaluation: follow-up report. Oxford: Oxford Policy Management; 2014 April.
Ponce 2017 {published data only}
    1. Ponce J, Ramos-Martin J. Impact of two policy interventions on dietary diversity in Ecuador. Public Health Nutrition 2017;20(8):1473-80. - PMC - PubMed
Porter 2016 {published data only}
    1. Porter C, Goyal R. Social protection for all ages? Impacts of Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program on child nutrition. Social Science & Medicine 2016;159:92-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.05.001] - DOI - PubMed
Renzaho 2017 {published data only}
    1. Renzaho AMN, Chitekwe S, Chen W, Rijal S, Dhakal T, Dahal P. The synergetic effect of cash transfers for families, child sensitive social protection programs, and capacity building for effective social protection on children's nutritional status in Nepal. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2017;14(12):1502. - PMC - PubMed
Schwab 2013 {published data only}
    1. Schwab B. In the form of bread? A randomized comparison of cash and food transfers in Yemen. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; 2013. Conference paper.
Skoufias 2013 {published data only}
    1. Avitabile C. Does information improve the health behavior of adults targeted by a conditional transfer program? Journal of Human Resources 2012;47(3):785-825.
    1. Cunha JM. Testing paternalism: cash versus in-kind transfers. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2014;6(2):195-230. [DOI: 10.1257/app.6.2.195] - DOI
    1. Ramirez-Luzuriaga MJ, Unar-Munguia M, Rodriguez-Ramirez S, Rivera JA, Gonzalez de Cosio T. A food transfer program without a formal education component modifies complementary feeding practices in poor rural Mexican communities. The Journal of Nutrition 2016;146(1):107-13. [DOI: 10.3945/jn.115.215962] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Skoufias E, Unar M, González-Cossío T. The impacts of cash and in-kind transfers on consumption and labor supply: Experimental evidence from rural Mexico. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; 2008 November. Policy research working paper 4778.
    1. Skoufias E, Unar M, Gonzalez de Cossio T. The poverty impacts of cash and in-kind transfers: experimental evidence from rural Mexico. Journal of Development Effectiveness 2013;5(4):401-29.
Sturm 2013 {published data only}
    1. An R, Sturm R. A cash-back rebate program for healthy food purchases in South Africa: selection and program effects in self-reported diet patterns. American Journal of Health Behavior 2017;41(2):152-62. - PubMed
    1. Sturm R, An, R, Segal D, Patel D. A cash-back rebate program for healthy food purchases in South Africa: results from scanner data. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2013;44(6):567-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2013.02.011] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Tonguet Papucci 2015 {published data only}
    1. Houngbe F, Tonguet-Papucci A, Altare C, Ait-Aissa M, Huneau J, Huybregts L, et al. Unconditional cash transfers do not prevent children's undernutrition in the Moderate Acute Malnutrition Out (MAM'Out) cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Burkina Faso. The Journal of Nutrition 2017;147:1410–7. - PubMed
    1. Tonguet-Papucci A, Houngbe F, Huybregts L, Ait-Aissa M, Altare C, Kolsteren P, et al. Unconditional seasonal cash transfer increases intake of high-nutritional-value foods in young Burkinabe children: results of 24-hour dietary recall surveys within the Moderate Acute Malnutrition Out (MAM'Out) randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Nutrition 2017;147(7):1418-25. - PubMed
    1. Tonguet-Papucci A, Houngbe F, Lompo P, Yameogo WME, Huneau J, Ait Aissa M, et al. Beneficiaries' perceptions and reported use of unconditional cash transfers intended to prevent acute malnutrition in children in poor rural communities in Burkina Faso: qualitative results from the MAM'Out randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health 2017;17:527. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Tonguet-Papucci A, Huybregts L, Ait Aissa M, Huneau JF, Kolsteren P. The MAM'Out project: a randomized controlled trial to assess multiannual and seasonal cash transfers for the prevention of acute malnutrition in children under 36 months in Burkina Faso. BMC Public Health 2015;15:762. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-2060-3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Verbowski 2018 {published data only}
    1. Michaux KD, Hou K, Karakochuk CD, Whitfield KC, Ly S, Verbowski V, et al. Effect of enhanced homestead food production on anaemia among Cambodian women and children: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Maternal & Child Nutrition 2019;15(S3):e12757. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Verbowski V, Talukder Z, Hou K, Sok Hoing L, Michaux K, Anderson V, et al. Effect of enhanced homestead food production and aquaculture on dietary intakes of women and children in rural Cambodia: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Maternal & Child Nutrition 2018;14(3):e12581. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Weinhardt 2017 {published data only}
    1. Weinhardt LS, Galvao LW, Yan AF, Stevens P, Mwenyekonde TN, Ngui E, et al. Mixed-method quasi-experimental study of outcomes of a large-scale multilevel economic and food security intervention on HIV vulnerability in rural Malawi. AIDS and Behavior 2017;21(3):712-23. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Abubakari 2014 {published data only}
    1. Abubakari A, Sadik B Bgaha, Keisan Y. Impact of village savings and loans associations on the nutritional status of under-five children: a case study in the Sissala West district of Upper West Region. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 2014;13(7):390.
ACTRN12611001170910 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12611001170910. Spend Study - a randomised controlled trial to examine the effect of providing additional money on food spending among low income households. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=347678 (first submitted 4 November 2011).
Aker 2017 {published data only}
    1. Aker JC. Comparing cash and voucher transfers in a humanitarian context: evidence from the Democratic Republic of Congo. World Bank Economic Review 2017;31(1):44-70.
Akresh 2016 {published data only}
    1. Akresh R, Walque D, Kazianga H. Alternative cash transfer delivery mechanisms: impacts on routine preventative health clinic visits in Burkina Faso. In: Edwards S, Johnson S, and Weil DN, editors(s). African Successes, Volume II: Human Capital. 1 edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2016.
Alderman 2009 {published data only}
    1. Alderman H, Ndiaye B, Linnemayr S, Ka A, Rokx C, Dieng K, et al. Effectiveness of a community-based intervention to improve nutrition in young children in Senegal: a difference in difference analysis. Public Health Nutrition 2009;12(5):667-73. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980008002619] - DOI - PubMed
Alvarez 2008 {published data only}
    1. Álvarez C, Devoto F, Winters P. Why do beneficiaries leave the safety net in Mexico? A study of the effects of conditionality on dropouts. World Development 2008;36(4):641-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.04.014] - DOI
Amarante 2016 {published data only}
    1. Amarante V, Manacorda M, Miguel E, Vigorito A. Do cash transfers improve birth outcomes? Evidence from matched vital statistics, and program and social security data. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 2016;8(2):1-43. [DOI: 10.1257/pol.20140344] - DOI
Attanasio 2014 {published data only}
    1. Attanasio OP, Lechene V. Efficient responses to targeted cash transfers. Journal of Political Economy 2014;122(1):178-222.
Attanasio 2014a {published data only}
    1. Attanasio OP, Fernández C, Fitzsimons EOA, Grantham-McGregor SM, Meghir C, Rubio-Codina, M. Using the infrastructure of a conditional cash transfer program to deliver a scalable integrated early child development program in Colombia: cluster randomized controlled trial. BMJ 2014;349(Sep 29):g5785. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.g5785] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ayala 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ayala GX, Baquero B, Pickrel JL, Mayer J, Belch G, Rock CL, et al. A store-based intervention to increase fruit and vegetable consumption: The El Valor de Nuestra Salud cluster randomized controlled trial. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2015;42:228-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2015.04.009] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ayele 2003 {published data only}
    1. Ayele Z, Peacock C. Improving access to and consumption of animal source foods in rural households: the experiences of a women-focused goat development program in the highlands of Ethiopia. Journal of Nutrition 2003;133(11):3981S-6S. - PubMed
Barber 2008 {published data only}
    1. Barber SL, Gertler PJ. The impact of Mexico's conditional cash transfer programme, Oportunidades, on birthweight. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2008;13(11):1405-14. - PMC - PubMed
Bazzi 2012 {published data only}
    1. Bazzi S, Sumarto S, Suryahadi A. Evaluating Indonesia's Unconditional Cash Transfer Program, 2005-6. International Initiative for Impact Evaluation; 2012 March.
Behrman 2009 {published data only}
    1. Behrman JR, Parker SW, Todd PE. Schooling impacts of conditional cash transfers on young children: evidence from Mexico. Economic Development and Cultural Change 2009;57(3):439-77. - PMC - PubMed
Bezu 2014 {published data only}
    1. Bezu S, Kassie GT, Shiferaw B, Ricker-Gilbert J. Impact of improved maize adoption on welfare of farm households in Malawi: a panel data analysis. World Development 2014;59:120-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.01.023] - DOI
Bihan 2010 {published data only}
    1. Bihan H, Castetbon K, Mejean C, Peneau S, Pelabon L Jellouli F, et al. Sociodemographic factors and attitudes toward food affordability and health are associated with fruit and vegetable consumption in a low-income French population. Journal of Nutrition 2010;140(4):823-30. [DOI: 10.3945/jn.109.118273] - DOI - PubMed
Bleich 2007 {published data only}
    1. Bleich E, Guerne RZ, Mack S. The FAO special programme for food security: livestock diversification – a case study in Chad. World's Poultry Science Journal 2007;61(1):23-30. [DOI: 10.1079/wps200438] - DOI
Braido 2012 {published data only}
    1. Braido LHB, Olinto P, Perrone H. Gender bias in intra-household allocation: evidence from an unintentional experiment. Review of Economics and Statistics 2012;94(2):552-65.
Broutin 2006 {published data only}
    1. Broutin C, Bricas N. Agroalimentaire et lutte contre la pauvreté en Afrique subsaharienne. Paris: Editions du Gret; 2007. Etudes et travaux.
Buller 2016 {published data only}
    1. Buller AM, Hidrobo M, Peterman A, Heise L. The way to a man's heart is through his stomach? a mixed methods study on causal mechanisms through which cash and in-kind food transfers decreased intimate partner violence. BMC Public Health 2016;16:488. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3129-3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Cabral 2014 {published data only}
    1. Cabral CS, Lopes AG, Lopes JM, Vianna RP. Food security, income, and the Bolsa Familia program: a cohort study of municipalities in Paraiba State, Brazil, 2005-2011. Cadernos de Saude Publica / Ministerio da Saude, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Escola Nacional de Saude Publica 2014;30(2):393-402. [DOI: 10.1590/0102-311X00140112] - DOI - PubMed
Cardenas 2015 {published data only}
    1. Cardenas MK, Benziger CP, Pillay TD, Miranda J J. The effect of changes in visibility and price on fruit purchasing at a university cafeteria in Lima, Peru. Public Health Nutrition 2015;18(15):2742-9. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980014002730] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Cluver 2018 {published data only}
    1. Cluver L, Meinck F, Doubt J, Ward C, Lombard C, Shenderovich Y, et al. Cash+Care: parenting support and violence reduction programme associated with reductions in adolescent HIV-risks in South Africa: a cluster randomized trial of a DREAMS and 4Children-implemented programme 'Parenting for Lifelong Health'. Journal of the International AIDS Society 2018;21.
Cohen 2015 {published data only}
    1. Cohen CR, Steinfeld RL, Weke E, Bukusi EA, Hatcher AM, Shiboski S, et al. Shamba Maisha: pilot agricultural intervention for food security and HIV health outcomes in Kenya: design, methods, baseline results and process evaluation of a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Springerplus 2015;4:122. [DOI: 10.1186/s40064-015-0886-x] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Dammert 2009 {published data only}
    1. Dammert AC. Heterogeneous impacts of conditional cash transfers: evidence from Nicaragua. Economic Development and Cultural Change 2009;58(1):53-83.
Debela 2015 {published data only}
    1. Debela BL, Shively G, Holden ST. Does Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program improve child nutrition? Food Security 2015;7(6):1273-89. [DOI: 10.1007/s12571-015-0499-9] - DOI
Downs 2017 {published data only}
    1. Downs S, Fanzo J. Developing a voice messaging intervention to improve nutrition in a large scale horticulture intensification project in Senegal. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:398.
ENN 2018 {published data only}
    1. Emergency Nutrition Network (ENN). Impact evaluation of the Lebanon multipurpose cash assistance programme. Field Exchange 57, March 2018. Available at: www.ennonline.net/fex/57/lebanonmpcashassistanceprog:82.
Fenn 2015_Niger {published data only}
    1. Fenn B, Noura G, Sibson V, Dolan C, Shoham J. The role of unconditional cash transfers during a nutritional emergency in Maradi region, Niger: a pre-post intervention observational study. Public Health Nutrition 2015;18(2):343-51. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980014000378] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Fenn B, Trepel D, Dolan C, Shoham J, Sibson V. Seasonal unconditional cash transfers and wasting in Niger. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2013;63:1002.
Fernald 2017 {published data only}
    1. Fernald LC, Kagawa RM, Knauer HA, Schnaas L, Guerra AG, Neufeld LM. Promoting child development through group-based parent support within a cash transfer program: experimental effects on children's outcomes. Developmental Psychology 2017;53(2):222-36. [DOI: 10.1037/dev0000185] - DOI - PubMed
Fortin 2016 {published data only}
    1. Fortin S, Kameli Y, Ouattara A, CastanF, Perenze ML, Kankouan J, et al. Targeting vulnerable households in urban Burkina Faso: effectiveness of geographical criteria but not of proxy-means testing. Health Policy Plan 2016;31(5):573-81. [DOI: 10.1093/heapol/czv104] - DOI - PubMed
Gelli 2017 {published data only}
    1. Gelli A, Roschnik N. A cluster randomised control trial of an integrated agriculture-nutrition package to improve children's diets through community based childcare centres in Malawi. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:685-86.
Gertler 2012 {published data only}
    1. Gertler PJ, Martinez SW, Rubio-Codina M. Investing cash transfers to raise long-term living standards. American Economic Journal. Applied Economics 2012;4(1):164-92.
Gram 2019 {published data only}
    1. Gram L, Morrison J, Saville N, Yadav SS, Shrestha B, Manandhar D, et al. Do participatory learning and action women's groups alone or combined with cash or food transfers expand women's agency in rural Nepal? Journal of Development Studies 2019;55(8):1670-86. - PMC - PubMed
Grellety 2017 {published data only}
    1. Grellety E, Babakazo P, Bangana A, Mwamba G, Lezama I, Zagre NM, et al. Effects of unconditional cash transfers on the outcome of treatment for severe acute malnutrition (SAM): a cluster-randomised trial in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. BMC Medicine 2017;15(1):87. - PMC - PubMed
Gutiérrez 2019 {published data only}
    1. Gutiérrez JP, Shamah-Levy T, Bertozzi SM, Rivera-Dommarco JA. Intergenerational social mobility based on the investments in human capital: evidence of the long-term results of PROSPERA in health. Washington, DC; The World Bank; 2019 September. Policy research working paper no. WPS9001.
Haghparast‐Bidgoli 2019 {published data only}
    1. Haghparast-Bidgoli H, Skordis J, Harris-Fry H, Krishnan S, O'Hearn M, Kumar A, et al. Protocol for the cost-consequence and equity impact analyses of a cluster randomised controlled trial comparing three variants of a nutrition-sensitive agricultural extension intervention to improve maternal and child dietary diversity and nutritional status in rural Odisha, India (UPAVAN trial). Trials 2019;20:287. - PMC - PubMed
Haque 2017 {published data only}
    1. Haque A, Dey MM. Impacts of community-based fish culture in seasonal flood plains on income, food security and employment in Bangladesh. Food Security 2017;9(1):25-38.
Hardin Fanning 2014 {published data only}
    1. Hardin-Fanning F, Gokun Y. Gender and age are associated with healthy food purchases via grocery voucher redemption. Rural and Remote Health 2014;14(3):2830. - PMC - PubMed
Huey 2019 {published data only}
    1. Teo CH, Chin YS, Lim PY, Masrom SAH, Shariff ZM. Impact of a school nutrition program (SNP) in Malaysia. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2019;75(3):1427.
Idiaye 2014 {published data only}
    1. Idiaye CO, Omonona BT. National Special Programme for Food Security (NSPFS) and poverty among farming households in Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences 2014;5(3):343.
ISRCTN10323949 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN10323949. Effectiveness of approaches to deliver integrated solutions for optimal child growth and development in Tanzania. www.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ISRCTN10323949 (first posted 3 December 2017).
ISRCTN77820875 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN77820875. Cambodia integrated nutrition, hygiene, and sanitation impact evaluation – endline. www.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ISRCTN77820875 (first posted 9 August 2019).
Issaley 2013 {published data only}
    1. Issaley NA. Le cash transfer à Olléléwa: de la fabrique des" vulnérables" à la gestion locale de l'aide. www.lasdel.net/images/etudes_et_travaux/Le_cash_transfer_a_Ollelewa.pdf 2013.
Jharendu 2014 {published data only}
    1. Pant J, Barman BK, Murshed-E-Jahan K, Belton B, Beveridge M. Can aquaculture benefit the extreme poor? A case study of landless and socially marginalized Adivasi (ethnic) communities in Bangladesh. Aquaculture 2014;418/419:1-10.
Kagawa 2017 {published data only}
    1. Kagawa RM, Deardorff J, Garcia-Guerra A, Knauer HA, Schnaas L, Neufeld LM, et al. Effects of a parenting program among women who began childbearing as adolescents and young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health 2017;61(5):634-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.05.023] - DOI - PubMed
Kakuhikire 2016 {published data only}
    1. Kakuhikire B, Suquillo D, Atuhumuza E, Mushavi R, Perkins JM, Venkataramani AS, et al. A livelihood intervention to improve economic and psychosocial well-being in rural Uganda: longitudinal pilot study. SAHARA J: Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS Research Alliance 2016;13(1):162-9. [DOI: 10.1080/17290376.2016.1230072] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kidoido 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kidoido M, Korir L. Do low-income households in Tanzania derive income and nutrition benefits from dairy innovation and dairy production? Food Security 2015;7(3):681-92.
Kim 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kim K, Hong SA, Yun SH, Ryou HJ, Lee SS, Kim MK. The effect of a healthy school tuck shop program on the access of students to healthy foods. Nutrition Research and Practice 2012;6(2):138-45. [DOI: 10.4162/nrp.2012.6.2.138] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kimenju 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kimenju SC, Rischke R, Klasen S, Qaim M. Do supermarkets contribute to the obesity pandemic in developing countries? Public Health Nutrition 2015;18(17):3224-33. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980015000919] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kronebusch 2019 {published data only}
    1. Kronebusch N, Damon A. The impact of conditional cash transfers on nutrition outcomes: experimental evidence from Mexico. Economics and Human Biology 2019;33:169-80. - PubMed
KumarGhosh 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kumar Ghosh, D. Combating the menace of food insecurity: the experience of West Bengal. Development in Practice 2011;21(4-5):691-704.
Lopez 2018 {published data only}
    1. Lopez BF, Creamer J. Cash, conditions and child development: experimental evidence from a cash transfer in Honduras. Washington, DC; Inter-American Development Bank; 2018 October. IDB working paper series No IDB-WP-952.
Loubser 2010 {published data only}
    1. Loubser M. HealthyFood™ benefit: impact of financial incentives and rewards on health and purchasing behaviour of members of a private health insurance scheme in South Africa. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;23(3):27-29.
Martins 2013 {published data only}
    1. Martins APB. Impacto do Programa Bolsa Família sobre a aquisição de alimentos em famílias brasileiras de baixa renda [PhD Thesis]. Sao Paulo, Brazil: Universidade de São Paulo, 2013.
Mascie Taylor 2010 {published data only}
    1. Mascie-Taylor CG, Marks MK, Goto R, Islam R. Impact of a cash-for-work programme on food consumption and nutrition among women and children facing food insecurity in rural Bangladesh. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2010;88(11):854-60. [DOI: 10.2471/BLT.10.080994] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
NCT02558660 {published data only}
    1. NCT02558660. Evaluating use of a farmers market incentive program among low-income health center patients. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02558660 (first posted 24 September 2015).
NCT02577705 {published data only}
    1. NCT02577705. Building wealth and health network: a microfinance/TANF demonstration project. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02577705 (first posted 16 October 2015).
NCT02843178 {published data only}
    1. NCT02843178. Designing food voucher programs to reduce disparities in healthy diets [Coupons for Healthy Intake using Variable Economic Strategies (CHIVES)]. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02843178 (first posted 25 July 2016).
NCT03311698 {published data only}
    1. NCT03311698. Homestead agriculture and nutrition project. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03311698 (first posted 17 October 2017).
NCT04135625 {published data only}
    1. NCT04135625. Improving nutrition in children under two through increased egg consumption in Burkina Faso. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04135625 (first posted 22 October 2019).
NCT04166370 {published data only}
    1. NCT04166370. Bangladesh MSNP: social protection mixed methods study. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04166370 (first posted 18 November 2019).
NCT04171999 {published data only}
    1. NCT04171999. CommunityRx-Hunger (CRx-H) [CommunityRx-Hunger: a hospital-based intervention for primary caregivers of children admitted to the hospital]. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04171999 (first posted 21 November 2019).
Nisbett 2016 {published data only}
    1. Nisbett N, Longhurst R, Barnett I, Feruglio F, Gordon J, Hoddinott J, et al. Impact evaluation of the DFID programme to accelerate improved nutrition for the extreme poor in Bangladesh. Maximising the Quality of Scaling Up Nutrition (MQSUN); 2016 June.
Nsabuwera 2016 {published data only}
    1. Nsabuwera V, Hedt-Gauthier B, Khogali M, Edginton M, Hinderaker SG, Nisingizwe MP, et al. Making progress towards food security: evidence from an intervention in three rural districts of Rwanda. Public Health Nutrition 2016;19(7):1296-304. [DOI: 10.1017/S1368980015002207] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Olajide‐Taiwo 2011 {published data only}
    1. Olajide-Taiwo LO. Effect of capacity building on production of safe and profitable leafy vegetables among farmers in Ibadan City of Nigeria. Acta Horticulturae 2011;911:427-32.
Pasdar 2016 {published data only}
    1. Pasdar Y, Rezaei M, Darbandi M, Niazi P, Sharafi K. The effect of eliminating subsidies on food consumption of households in Kermanshah – Iran. International Journal of Pharmacy and Technology 2016;8:11141-50.
Pereko 2017 {published data only}
    1. Pereko K. The impact of community volunteer actions on child nutrition. In: IUNS. 21st International Congress of Nutrition. Buenos Aires, Argentina, October 15-20, 2017: Abstracts. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71(Supplement 2):704-5. [DOI: 10.1159/000480486] - DOI - PubMed
Perez Lu 2016 {published data only}
    1. Perez-Lu JE, Carcamo C, Nandi A, Kaufman JS. Health effects of 'Juntos', a conditional cash transfer programme in Peru. Maternal & Child Nutrition 2016;22:22. [DOI: 10.1111/mcn.12348] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Prifti {published data only}
    1. Prifti E, Daidone S, Pace N, Davis B. Stuck exchange: Can cash transfers push smallholders out of autarky? Journal of International Trade & Economic Development 2019;29(5):495-509. [DOI: 10.1080/09638199.2019.1702711] - DOI
Quiñones 2016 {published data only}
    1. Quiñones EJ, Roy S. The impact of conditional cash transfer programs on indigenous households in Latin America: evidence from PROGRESA in Mexico. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; 2016. IFPRI discussion paper.
Ragini 2017 {published data only}
    1. Ragini R. Impact of nutri-garden on food security of rural families in Udaipur District. Annals of Agri-bio Research 2017;22(2):278-80.
Rahman 2015 {published data only}
    1. Rahman AM, Abdel A, Samira M, Fadol IO. The role of Rural Women Schools (RWSs) on increasing income, improving nutrition and food security of rural families, Gezira State, Sudan. Agricultural Science Digest - A Research Journal 2015;35(2):101. [DOI: 10.5958/0976-0547.2015.00036.1] - DOI
Ramirez‐Silva 2013 {published data only}
    1. Ramirez-Silva I. The Oportunidades program's fortified food supplement, but not improvements in the home diet, increased the intake of key micronutrients in rural Mexican children aged 12-59 months. Journal of Nutrition 2013;143(5):656-63. - PubMed
Roschnik 2017 {published data only}
    1. Roschnik N, Twalibu Al. Lessons learned from designing and implementing an integrated nutrition, livelihood and ECD project in Malawi. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:63-4.
Roy 2019 {published data only}
    1. Roy S, Hidrobo M, Hoddinott J, Koch B, Ahmed A. Can transfers and behavior change communication reduce intimate partner violence four years post-program? Experimental evidence from Bangladesh. Washington, DC; International Food Policy Research Institute; 2019 September. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01869.
Rutherford 2016 {published data only}
    1. Rutherford DD, Burke HM, Cheung KK, Field, SH. Impact of an agricultural value chain project on smallholder farmers, households, and children in Liberia. World Development 2016;83:70-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.03.004] - DOI
Schultz 2001 {published data only}
    1. Schultz TP. School subsidies for the poor: evaluating a Mexican strategy for reducing poverty. Discussion paper 102. core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6289344.pdf.
Schwab 2019 {published data only}
    1. Schwab B. Comparing the productive effects of cash and food transfers in a crisis setting: evidence from a randomised experiment in Yemen. Journal of Development Studies 2019;55(Suppl 1):29-54.
Sinharoy 2017 {published data only}
    1. Sinharoy SS, Schmidt W-P, Wendt R, Mfura L, Crossett E, Grepin KA, et al. Impact of community health clubs on diarrhoea and anthropometry in western Rwanda: cluster-randomized controlled trial. Lancet Global Health 2017;5:e699-709. - PMC - PubMed
Sudfeld 2019 {published data only}
    1. Sudfeld CR, Bliznashka L, Ashery G, Yousafzai AK, Masanja H. Effect of a community health worker delivered health, nutrition and responsive stimulation package and conditional cash transfers on child development and growth in rural Tanzania: protocol for a cluster-randomized trial. BMC Public Health 2019;19(1):641. - PMC - PubMed
TorresSalcido 2015 {published data only}
    1. Torres Salcido G, Roble Pensado Leglise M, Smolski A. Food distribution's socio-economic relationships and public policy: Mexico City's municipal public markets. Development in Practice 2015;25(3):293-305. [DOI: 10.1080/09614524.2015.1016481] - DOI
Wang 2012 {published data only}
    1. Wang R, Shi L. Access to food outlets and children's nutritional intake in urban China: a difference-in-difference analysis. Italian Journal of Pediatrics 2012;38(1):30. - PMC - PubMed
Young 2014 {published data only}
    1. Young JR, O'Reilly RA, Ashley K, Suon S, Leoung IV, Windsor PA, et al. Impacts on rural livelihoods in Cambodia following adoption of best practice health and husbandry interventions by smallholder cattle farmers. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2014;61(S1):11-24. - PubMed
Zhang 2018 {published data only}
    1. Zhang Y, Ji M, Zou J, Yuan T, Deng J, Yang L, et al. Effect of a conditional cash transfer program on nutritional knowledge and food practices among caregivers of 3-5-year-old left-behind children in the rural Hunan province. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2018;15(3):525. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

ACTRN12618001803280 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12618001803280. Impact of improved duck rearing on sale and consumption of ducks in rural households of flood-prone areas of Bangladesh [Impact of improved duck rearing on sale and consumption of ducks and dietary diversity of rural households in flood-prone areas of Bangladesh]. www.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ACTRN12618001803280 (first posted 6 November 2018).
ACTRN12618001975280 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12618001975280. Effectiveness of unconditional Cash transfers and mobile behaviour change communications to reduce child under nutrition in rural Bangladesh [A community based cluster randomised controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of unconditional Cash transfers and mobile behaviour change communications to reduce child under nutrition in rural Bangladesh]. apps.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ACTRN12618001975280 (first posted 7 December 2018).
Adubra 2017 {published data only}
    1. Adubra L, Fortin S, Kameli Y, Le Port A, Kodjo NE, Savy M, et al. Can conditional cash transfer combined with nutritional supplementation play a role in reducing child stunting in rural Mali? Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:332.
Al‐serhan 2010 {published data only}
    1. Al-serhan M. Addressing poverty and improving livelihoods in Bedouin regions of Jordan [thesis]. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 2010.
Antwi 2013 {published data only}
    1. Antwi MA, Oladele OI. Strategy, operation and effects of the Nguni Cattle Project in the North West Province, South Africa. Asia Life Sciences 2013:91-102.
Becquey 2017 {published data only}
    1. Becquey E, Olney D, Golan J, Praygod G, Veryser S, Smith E, et al. Impacts of using an integrated homestead food production and nutrition program platform to promote utilization of multiple micronutrient powders: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:859.
Bezuneh 1989 {published data only}
    1. Bezuneh M. Farm level impacts of food-for-work in a semi-arid region of Kenya. Eastern Africa Economic Review 5;1:1-8.
Bhandari 2019 {published data only}
    1. Bhandari S, Butler L, Otieno P, Weiser S, Cohen C, Frongillo E. An agricultural and finance intervention improved dietary intake and nutritional status of children living in HIV-affected households in Western Kenya. Current Developments in Nutrition 2019;3(Suppl 1):P10-129-19. - PMC - PubMed
Briaux 2017 {published data only}
    1. Briaux J, Carles S, Kameli Y, Fortin S, Rollet P, Becquet R, et al. Impact of a cash transfer program targeting the "1000 days period" on low birth weight and growth retardation: a cluster randomized trial in Togo. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:333-4.
Deji 2015 {published data only}
    1. Deji SA, Onayade AA. A comparative study of food security sustainability among households in selected rural villages of Nigeria. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2015;67:478-9.
Donato 2017 {published data only}
    1. Donato K. Money or knowledge? Behavioral aspects of malnutrition. Annals of Global Health 2017;83(1):78.
Gahamanyi 2015a {published data only}
    1. Gahamanyi V, Kettlewell A. Evaluating graduation: insights from the Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme in Rwanda. IDS Bulletin 2015;46(2):48-63.
Gauchan 1997 {published data only}
    1. Gauchan D. Fruit tree integration: an option to improve household food security in Nepal's mountain region. In: Heidhues F, Fadani A, editors(s). Food Security and Innovations: Successes and Lessons Learned. New York (NY): Peter Lang Publishing Inc, 1997:221-230.
Ghattas 2019 {published data only}
    1. Ghattas H, Jamaluddine Z, Choufani J, Masterson AR, Sahyoun NR. Improvements in economic, social, and food security outcomes of Palestinian refugee women and diet diversity of Palestinian schoolchildren in Lebanon: the Healthy Kitchens, Healthy Children intervention. Lancet 2019;393(Suppl 1):S25.
Ilham 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ilham N. Effectiveness of food price policies on food security. Indonesian Journal of Agriculture 2011;4(1):58-66.
ISRCTN29521514 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN29521514. Assessing the role of cash transfer programmes in reducing the risk of acute malnutrition in Somalia. www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN29521514 (first applied 19 January 2016).
Kim 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kim J. A study on the food security of Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Journal of Rural Development 2009;32(4):85-108.
Kroeun 2019 {published data only}
    1. Kroeun H, Cotes G, Sokhoing L, Ngik R, Ridolfi R. Dietary diversity in Cambodian women and children in a cluster randomized control trial of enhanced homestead food production with and without gender components. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2019;75(3):78.
Lukmanji 2017 {published data only}
    1. Lukmanji Z, Mubarak M, Das L. The assessment of nutritional status of children below five years in households which participated in Food and Livelihood Security (FLS) project in Rajshahi Division-Bangladesh. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:874.
Marsh 1994 {published data only}
    1. Marsh RR, Talukder A. Effects of the introduction of home gardening on the production and consumption of target, interaction, and control groups: a case study from Bangladesh. Montpellier: Recherches-système en agriculture et développement rural 1994:425-30.
Miller 2017 {published data only}
    1. Miller L, Joshi N, Lohani M, Rogers B, Mahato S, Neupane S, et al. Greater improvements in child growth and diet quality after a holistic community development intervention than after nutrition training alone. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:412-3.
Morris 1999 {published data only}
    1. Morris SS, Banegas JMM. Rural development, household food security, and nutrition in western Honduras [Desarrollo rural, seguridad alimentaria del hogar y nutrición en el oeste de Honduras]. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 1999;49(3):244-52. - PubMed
Mpiira 2019 {published data only}
    1. Mpiira R, Olobo Okello P, Ali Z. A multisectoral approach to eradication of malnutrition in vulnerable groups: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Global Health 2019;7:S8.
NCT03336021 {published data only}
    1. NCT03336021. Impact evaluation of agribusiness support and nutrition services projects in Upper Egypt. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03336021 (first posted 8 November 2017).
NCT03847662 {published data only}
    1. NCT03847662. Scaling up small-scale food processing to promote food security among women farmers in rural Vietnam. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03847662 (first posted 20 February 2019).
PACTR201804003012418 {published data only}
    1. PACTR201804003012418. Randomized controlled trial to study the effect of nutritional intervention from farm to feeding on gestational weight gain, anaemia and child nutrition. www.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=PACTR201804003012418 (first registered 25 January 2018).
Park 2019 {published data only}
    1. Park S, Han YE, Kim H. Knowledge, food vouchers, and child nutrition: evidence from a field experiment in Ethiopia. Current Developments in Nutrition 2019;3(Suppl 1):1091.
Pham Van 2004 {published data only}
    1. Pham Van H. Study on the maternal – children nutritional status improve effects of an integrated food security project. Journal of Vietnamese Medicine 2004;302(9):1-6.
Raneri 2017 {published data only}
    1. Raneri Je, Hoang K, Berti P, Kennedy G, Lachat C. Promotion of local agrobiodiversity improves diets of women and children in North West Vietnam: a cluster RCT. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:408-9.
Raza 2018 {published data only}
    1. Raza WA, Van de Poel E, Van Ourti T. Impact and spill-over effects of an asset transfer program on child undernutrition: evidence from a randomized control trial in Bangladesh. Journal of Health Economics 2018;62:105-20. - PubMed
Rosas 2017 {published data only}
    1. Rosas VM, Levy TS, Tapia BM, Gomez-Humaran IM. Impact of the National Crusade Against Hunger (CNCH) on anemia and dietary diversity among Mexican children. In: Special Issue: Experimental Biology 2017 Meeting Abstracts. The FASEB Journal 2017;31(S1):lb585.
Santoso 2019 {published data only}
    1. Santoso M, Kerr RB, Kassim N, Martin H, Mtinda E, Mtei K, et al. Production diversity, men's help with household tasks, & lower women's depression mediate impact of an agriculture intervention on child's dietary diversity in Tanzania. Current Developments in Nutrition 2019;3(Suppl 1):FS01-06-19.
Shamah‐Levy 2003 {published data only}
    1. Shamah Levy T, Avila Curiel A, Cuevas Nasu L, Chavez Villasana A, Avila Arcos MA, Fernandez Mendoza C. The tortilla subsidy in Mexico: a nutritional or economic program? Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 2003;53(1):5-13. - PubMed
Talukder 2017 {published data only}
    1. Talukder A, Mundy G, Hou K, Stormer A, Michaux K, McLean J, et al. The role of small scale aquaculture and enhanced homestead food production in improving household food security and nutrition. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71:214-5.
Taren 2017 {published data only}
    1. Taren D. The impact of solar market gardens on child growth, iron and vitamin a status in the Kalale District of Northern Benin. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2017;71(Supplement 2):1308.
Tchale 2000 {published data only}
    1. Tchale H, Edriss A. Production and marketing of smallholder tobacco: effect on household food security, nutritional status and intra-household labour allocation in Malawi. UNISWA Research Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology 2000;4(1):83-92.
Teran Cadima {published data only}
    1. Teran Cadima N. Evaluation of progress and impact of the intervention nutritional in infantils centers integrals of Ministry of Social Security and Public Health in the city of La Paz. n/a.
Vliegen 2000 {published data only}
    1. Vliegen K. Report on a nutrition and household food security project in Viet Nam. Food, Nutrition and Agriculture 2000;27:40-6.
Wood {published data only}
    1. Wood RP. Transfers for tots: A study of the heterogeneous effects of food and cash assistance on child anthropometry in Uganda [Master thesis]. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2014.

References to ongoing studies

Green 2016 {published data only}
    1. Green T. Scale up of enhanced homestead food production in Cambodia. University of British Columbia, Helen Keller International and International Development Research Centre (Canada) 2016.
Hidrobo 2016 {published data only}
    1. Hidrobo M, Roy S, Huybregts L, Gilligan D, Ruel M. The effect of a cash transfer program on household welfare and child nutritional status in Mali. Washington, DC; International Food Policy Research Institute; 2016.
ISRCTN24757827 2018 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN24757827. Cash for improved nutrition in Somalia. www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN24757827 (first posted 5 November 2018).
NCT03170986 2017 {published data only}
    1. NCT03170986. Multi-sectoral agricultural intervention to improve nutrition, health and developmental outcomes of HIV-infected and affected children in Western Kenya. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03170986 (first posted 31 May 2017).
NCT03299218 2017 {published data only}
    1. NCT03299218. Effectiveness of SNF, Cash and BCC to prevent stunting among children 6-24 months in Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan [Effectiveness of a programme comprised of SNF, cash-based transfers and BCC to prevent stunting among children 6-24 months in Rahim Yar Khan, Punjab, Pakistan]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03299218 (first posted 3 October 2017).
NCT03455257 2018 {published data only}
    1. NCT03455257. Evaluation of a cash transfer program in low-income families in Guinea-Bissau. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03455257 (first posted 6 March 2018).
NCT03518593 2018 {published data only}
    1. NCT03518593. Evaluation of NICHE programme activities in Kenya [Evaluation of NICHE (Nutritional Improvements through Cash and Health Education) programme activities in Kitui and Machakos, Kenya]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03518593 (first posted 8 May 2018).
NCT03590717 2018 {published data only}
    1. NCT03590717. Impact evaluation of WFP's fresh food voucher pilot programme in Ethiopia. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03590717 (first posted 18 July 2018).
NCT03741634 2018 {published data only}
    1. NCT03741634. Assessing the preliminary effects of a multisectoral agricultural intervention on adolescent girls' health [Shamba Maisha: assessing the preliminary effects of a multisectoral agricultural intervention on the sexual and reproductive health of HIV-affected adolescent girls in Western Kenya]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03741634 (first posted 15 November 2018).
NCT04101487 2019 {published data only}
    1. NCT04101487. Cash transfers to increase dietary diversity in Grand Gedeh County, Liberia [A cluster randomized trial to study the effect of cash transfers and nutrition education on dietary diversity among children 6-23 months of age in Grand Gedeh County, Liberia: a pilot study]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04101487 (first posted 24 September 2019).
Wendt 2019 {published data only}
    1. Wendt AS, Sparling TM, Waid JL, Mueller AA, Gabrysch S. Food and Agricultural Approaches to Reducing Malnutrition (FAARM): protocol for a cluster-randomised controlled trial to evaluate the impact of a homestead food production programme on undernutrition in rural Bangladesh. BMJ Open 2019;9:e031037. - PMC - PubMed

Additional references

ACF‐IN 2008
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Alagiyawanna 2015
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Arenas 2019
    1. Arenas DJ, Thomas A, Wang J, DeLisser HM. A systematic review and meta-analysis of depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders in US adults with food insecurity. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2019;34(12):2874-82. - PMC - PubMed
Baird 2014
    1. Baird S, Ferreira FHG, Ozler B, Woolcock M. Conditional, unconditional and everything in between: a systematic review of the effects of cash transfer programmes on schooling outcomes. Journal of Development Effectiveness 2014;6(1):1-43.
Bastagli 2016
    1. Bastagli F, Hagen-Zanker J, Harman L, Barca V, Sturge G, Schmidt T, et al. Cash transfers: what does the evidence say? A rigorous review of programme impact and of the role of design and implementation features. Overseas Development Institute 2016.
Basu 2013
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Bhandari 2003
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Bird 2019
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