SARS-CoV-2 in environmental perspective: Occurrence, persistence, surveillance, inactivation and challenges

Abstract

The unprecedented global spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) caused by SARS-CoV-2 is depicting the distressing pandemic consequence on human health, economy as well as ecosystem services. So far novel coronavirus (CoV) outbreaks were associated with SARS-CoV-2 (2019), middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV, 2012), and SARS-CoV-1 (2003) events. CoV relates to the enveloped family of Betacoronavirus (βCoV) with positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA). Knowing well the persistence, transmission, and spread of SARS-CoV-2 through proximity, the faecal-oral route is now emerging as a major environmental concern to community transmission. The replication and persistence of CoV in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and shedding through stools is indicating a potential transmission route to the environment settings. Despite of the evidence, based on fewer reports on SARS-CoV-2 occurrence and persistence in wastewater/sewage/water, the transmission of the infective virus to the community is yet to be established. In this realm, this communication attempted to review the possible influx route of the enteric enveloped viral transmission in the environmental settings with reference to its occurrence, persistence, detection, and inactivation based on the published literature so far. The possibilities of airborne transmission through enteric virus-laden aerosols, environmental factors that may influence the viral transmission, and disinfection methods (conventional and emerging) as well as the inactivation mechanism with reference to the enveloped virus were reviewed. The need for wastewater epidemiology (WBE) studies for surveillance as well as for early warning signal was elaborated. This communication will provide a basis to understand the SARS-CoV-2 as well as other viruses in the context of the environmental engineering perspective to design effective strategies to counter the enteric virus transmission and also serves as a working paper for researchers, policy makers and regulators.

Keywords: (h+), Photoholes; +ssRNA, Positive Sense Single-Stranded RNA; A-WWTS, Algal-WWTS; ACE2, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; AH, Absolute Humidity; AOPs, Advanced Oxidation Processes; ASP, Activate Sludge Process; Aerosols; BCoV, Bovine Enteric Coronavirus); BSL, Biosafety Level; BVDV1, Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Type 1; BVDV2, Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Type 2; BoRv, Bovine Rotavirus Group A; CCA, Carbon Covered Alumina; CNT, Carbon Nanotubes; COVID-19; COVID-19, Coronavirus Disease 2019; CRFK, Crandell Reese feline kidney cell line (CRFK); CVE, Coxsackievirus B5; ClO2, Chlorine dioxide; Cl−, Chlorine; Cys, Cysteine; DBP, Disinfection by-products; DBT, L2 and Delayed Brain Tumor Cell Cultures; DMEM, Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium; DNA, deoxyribose nucleic acid; Disinfection; E gene, Envelope protein gene; EV, Echovirus 11; Enteric virus; Enveloped virus; FC, Free Chlorine; FFP3, Filtering Face Piece; FIPV, Feline infectious peritonitis virus; GI, Gastrointestinal tract; H2O2, Hydrogen Peroxide; H3N2, InfluenzaA; H6N2, Avian influenza virus; HAV, Hepatitis A virus (HAV); HAdV, Human Adenovirus; HCoV, Human CoV; HEV, Hepatitis E virus; HKU1, Human CoV1; ICC-PCR, Integrated Cell Culture with PCR; JCV, JCV polyomavirus; MALDI-TOF MS, Mass Spectrometry; MBR, Membrane Bioreactor (MBR); MERS-CoV, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus; MHV, Murine hepatitis virus; MNV-1, Murine Norovirus; MWCNTs, Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes; Met, Methionine; N gene, Nucleocapsid protein gene; NCoV, Novel coronavirus; NGS, Next generation sequencing; NTP, Non-Thermal Plasma; O2, Singlet Oxygen; O3, Ozone; ORF, Open Reading Frame; PAA, Para Acetic Acid; PCR, Polymerase Chain Reaction; PEC, Photoelectrocatalytical; PEG, Polyethylene Glycol; PFU, Plaque Forming Unit; PMMoV, Pepper Mild Mottle Virus; PMR, Photocatalytic Membrane Reactors; PPE, Personal Protective Equipment; PTAF, Photocatalytic Titanium Apatite Filter; PV-1, Polivirus-1; PV-3, Poliovirus 3; PVDF, Polyvinylidene Fluoride; Qβ, bacteriophages; RH, Relative Humidity; RNA, Ribose nucleic acid; RONS, Reactive Oxygen and/or Nitrogen Species; RT-PCR, Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction; RVA, Rotaviruses A; SARS-CoV-1, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 1; SARS-CoV-2, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2; SBR, Sequential Batch Reactor; SODIS, Solar water disinfection; STP, Sewage Treatment Plant; Sewage; T90, First order reaction time required for completion of 90%; T99.9, First order reaction time required for completion of 99.9%; TGEV, Porcine Coronavirus Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus; TGEV, Transmissible Gastroenteritis; Trp, Tryptophan; Tyr, Tyrosine; US-EPA, United States Environmental Protection Agency; UV, Ultraviolet; WBE, Wastewater-Based Epidemiology; WWT, Wastewater Treatment; WWTPs, Wastewater Treatment Plants; dPCR, Digital PCR; ds, Double Stranded; dsDNA, Double Stranded DNA; log10, logarithm with base 10; qRT-PCR, quantitative RT-PCR; ss, Single Stranded; ssDNA, Single Stranded DNA; ssRNA, Single Stranded RNA; αCoV, Alphacoronavirus; βCoV, Betacoronavirus.

Graphical abstract

Fig. 1

Structure of Corona Virus (SARS-CoV-2).

Fig. 2

Possible Transmission Route of SARS-CoV-2.

Fig. 3

Conventional disinfections methods of virus inactivation.

Fig. 4

Advanced oxidation methods used for virus inactivation