Density-dependent sex-biased development of macroptery in a water strider

Abstract

In wing-polymorphic insects, wing morphs differ not only in dispersal capability but also in life history traits because of trade-offs between flight capability and reproduction. When the fitness benefits and costs of producing wings differ between males and females, sex-specific trade-offs can result in sex differences in the frequency of long-winged individuals. Furthermore, the social environment during development affects sex differences in wing development, but few empirical tests of this phenomenon have been performed to date. Here, I used the wing-dimorphic water strider Tenagogerris euphrosyne to test how rearing density and sex ratio affect the sex-specific development of long-winged dispersing morphs (i.e., sex-specific macroptery). I also used a full-sib, split-family breeding design to assess genetic effects on density-dependent, sex-specific macroptery. I reared water strider nymphs at either high or low densities and measured their wing development. I found that long-winged morphs developed more frequently in males than in females when individuals were reared in a high-density environment. However, the frequency of long-winged morphs was not biased according to sex when individuals were reared in a low-density environment. In addition, full-sib males and females showed similar macroptery incidence rates at low nymphal density, whereas the macroptery incidence rates differed between full-sib males and females at high nymphal density. Thus complex gene-by-environment-by-sex interactions may explain the density-specific levels of sex bias in macroptery, although this interpretation should be treated with some caution. Overall, my study provides empirical evidence for density-specific, sex-biased wing development. My findings suggest that social factors as well as abiotic factors can be important in determining sex-biased wing development in insects.

Keywords: Tenagogerris euphrosyne; density dependence; gene‐by‐environment; gene‐by‐sex; sex‐biased dispersal; wing dimorphism.

FIGURE 1

Adult male (apterous morph) of a water strider Tenagogerris euphrosyne. Photograph by Chang S. Han

FIGURE 2

A full‐sib split‐brood breeding design. Nymphs of each full‐sib family were divided between low‐ and high‐density treatments. When they developed into adults, their sex and wing development were identified

FIGURE 3

Rearing density‐specific development of macropterous males (filled circles) and females (open circles). The mean proportions of macropterous individuals with associated standard errors (error bars) were calculated using within‐family mean proportion values