Mesenchymal Stromal Cells' Therapy for Polyglutamine Disorders: Where Do We Stand and Where Should We Go?

Abstract

Polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases are a group of inherited neurodegenerative disorders caused by the expansion of the cytosine-adenine-guanine (CAG) repeat. This mutation encodes extended glutamine (Q) tract in the disease protein, resulting in the alteration of its conformation/physiological role and in the formation of toxic fragments/aggregates of the protein. This group of heterogeneous disorders shares common molecular mechanisms, which opens the possibility to develop a pan therapeutic approach. Vast efforts have been made to develop strategies to alleviate disease symptoms. Nonetheless, there is still no therapy that can cure or effectively delay disease progression of any of these disorders. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) are promising tools for the treatment of polyQ disorders, promoting protection, tissue regeneration, and/or modulation of the immune system in animal models. Accordingly, data collected from clinical trials have so far demonstrated that transplantation of MSC is safe and delays the progression of some polyQ disorders for some time. However, to achieve sustained phenotypic amelioration in clinics, several treatments may be necessary. Therefore, efforts to develop new strategies to improve MSC's therapeutic outcomes have been emerging. In this review article, we discuss the current treatments and strategies used to reduce polyQ symptoms and major pre-clinical and clinical achievements obtained with MSC transplantation as well as remaining flaws that need to be overcome. The requirement to cross the blood-brain-barrier (BBB), together with a short rate of cell engraftment in the lesioned area and low survival of MSC in a pathophysiological context upon transplantation may contribute to the transient therapeutic effects. We also review methods like pre-conditioning or genetic engineering of MSC that can be used to increase MSC survival in vivo, cellular-free approaches-i.e., MSC-conditioned medium (CM) or MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) as a way of possibly replacing the use of MSC and methods required to standardize the potential of MSC/MSC-derived products. These are fundamental questions that need to be addressed to obtain maximum MSC performance in polyQ diseases and therefore increase clinical benefits.

Keywords: cell therapy; extracellular vesicles; mesenchymal stromal cells; neurodegenerative disorders; polyglutamine disorders; secretome.

Figure 1

Timeline of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC)’s history and their use in neurodegenerative disorders (Friedenstein et al., ; Owen and Friedenstein, ; Caplan, ; Prockop, ; Chopp et al., ; Mazzini et al., ; Bonafede et al., 2016).

Figure 2

MSC’s paracrine mechanism(s) in neuronal cells.

Figure 3

Schematic representation of exosome biogenesis and molecular composition. Exosomes have an endocytic origin and are released to the extracellular milieu upon the fusion of MVB with the plasma membrane. Other MVB may fuse with lysosomes leading to their degradation. Overall, exosomes surface markers, cytoskeleton, and cellular metabolism proteins are common to those of the cell of origin. Plus, exosomes also include signaling proteins, DNA, several types of RNA, and lipids. Abbreviations: ESCRT, Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport; MVB, Multivesicular bodies; mRNA, messenger RNA, miRNA, microRNA.