Game-based learning environments affect frontal brain activity

Abstract

Inclusion of game elements in learning environments to increase motivation and learning outcome is becoming increasingly popular. However, underlying mechanisms of game-based learning have not been studied sufficiently yet. In the present study, we investigated effects of game-based learning environments on a neurofunctional level. In particular, 59 healthy adults completed a game-based version (including game elements such as a narrative and virtual incentives) as well as a non-game-based version of a number line estimation task, to improve fractional knowledge, while their brain activity was monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy. Behavioral performance was comparable across the two versions, although there was a tendency that less errors were made in the game-based version. However, subjective user experience differed significantly between versions. Participants rated the game-based version as more attractive, novel, and stimulating but less efficient than the non-game-based version. Additionally, positive affect was reported to be higher while engaging in the game-based as compared to the non-game-based task version. Corroborating these user reports, we identified increased brain activation in areas associated with emotion and reward processing while playing the game-based version, which might be driven by rewarding elements of the game-based version. Moreover, frontal areas associated with attention were also more activated in the game-based version of the task. Hence, we observed converging evidence on a user experience and neurofunctional level indicating that the game-based version was more rewarding as well as emotionally and attentionally engaging. These results underscore the potential of game-based learning environments to promote more efficient learning by means of attention and reward up-tuning.

Fig 1. Examples scenes of the game-based and non-game-based task version.

Exemplary screenshots of the game-based version (A) and the non-game-based version (B) of the number line estimation task when receiving positive feedback after correct estimation.

Fig 2. Position of the optode probe set on the head of participants.

(A) Placement of the 22 NIRS channels on the forehead. (B) Positions of the nine regions of interests (ROIs). (C) Channel configuration and positions of the emitters (red circles) and detectors (blue circles) of the optode probe set (3x5). Numbers in the white rectangles represent the respective NIRS channel number.

Fig 3. NIRS topography.

Topographical distribution of oxy- and deoxy-Hb during the game-based and non-game-based version.

Fig 4. ANOVA results for oxy-Hb.

Means and SE of oxy-Hb in the 9 regions of interests (ROI), presented separately for the game-based and non-game-based version. ROI 1: left orbitofrontal cortex; ROI 2: right orbitofrontal cortex; ROI 3: left middle/inferior frontal cortex; ROI 4: left superior frontal cortex; ROI 5: medial superior frontal cortex; ROI 6: right superior frontal cortex; ROI 7: right middle/inferior frontal cortex; ROI 8: left middle/superior frontal cortex; ROI 9: right middle/superior frontal cortex.

Fig 5. ANOVA results for deoxy-Hb.

Means and SE of deoxy-Hb in the 9 regions of interests (ROI), presented separately for the game-based and non-game-based version. ROI 1: left orbitofrontal cortex; ROI 2: right orbitofrontal cortex; ROI 3: left middle/inferior frontal cortex; ROI 4: left superior frontal cortex; ROI 5: medial superior frontal cortex; ROI 6: right superior frontal cortex; ROI 7: right middle/inferior frontal cortex; ROI 8: left middle/superior frontal cortex; ROI 9: right middle/superior frontal cortex.

Fig 6. NIRS time courses.

NIRS time course of oxy-Hb (upper panel) and deoxy-Hb (lower panel) during the game-based (left panel) and non-game-based (right panel) version, presented separately for each of the nine regions of interests (ROI). ROI 1: left orbitofrontal cortex; ROI 2: right orbitofrontal cortex; ROI 3: left middle/inferior frontal cortex; ROI 4: left superior frontal cortex; ROI 5: medial superior frontal cortex; ROI 6: right superior frontal cortex; ROI 7: right middle/inferior frontal cortex; ROI 8: left middle/superior frontal cortex; ROI 9: right middle/superior frontal cortex.