Nanobiosensors for the Detection of Novel Coronavirus 2019-nCoV and Other Pandemic/Epidemic Respiratory Viruses: A Review

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is considered a public health emergency of international concern. The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that caused this pandemic has spread rapidly to over 200 countries, and has drastically affected public health and the economies of states at unprecedented levels. In this context, efforts around the world are focusing on solving this problem in several directions of research, by: (i) exploring the origin and evolution of the phylogeny of the SARS-CoV-2 viral genome; (ii) developing nanobiosensors that could be highly effective in detecting the new coronavirus; (iii) finding effective treatments for COVID-19; and (iv) working on vaccine development. In this paper, an overview of the progress made in the development of nanobiosensors for the detection of human coronaviruses (SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is presented, along with specific techniques for modifying the surface of nanobiosensors. The newest detection methods of the influenza virus responsible for acute respiratory syndrome were compared with conventional methods, highlighting the newest trends in diagnostics, applications, and challenges of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19 causative virus) nanobiosensors.

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; SARS/MERS-CoV; coronavirus 2019-nCoV; influenzas; nanobiosensors; nanomaterials; respiratory virus; virus detection.

Figure 1

The animal origins of human coronaviruses (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)). Adapted from Rabi et al. [8], licensed CC BY 4.0.

Figure 2

Classification of human coronaviruses (HCoVs) from all four gen-groups. HCoVs are marked with red outlines. Adapted from Monajjemi et al. [61], licensed CC BY 4.0.

Figure 3

Schematic diagrams of the structural proteins components of SARS-CoV-2 (top), including spike (S) glycoprotein, small envelope (E), matrix (M) protein, and nucleocapsid (N) protein, as well as several accessory proteins [20] (licensed CC BY 4.0), and H1N1 influenza virus structure (bottom), including spikes made up of proteins, such as hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase proteins (NA), matrix protein (M1), and ion channel or M2 protein. Adapted from Besednova et al. [70], licensed CC BY 4.0.

Figure 4

Illustration of the mechanism by which coronavirus infection occurs and its mode of replication. Reprinted from Acter et al. [73]. Copyright 2020 with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 5

The schematic diagram of different analytes, bioreceptors for biorecognition elements, transducers with integrated nanostructures as parts of a typical nanobiosensor design for respiratory viruses.

Figure 6

Schematic representation of different biosensors classifications for the detection of SARS and MERS coronaviruses.

Figure 7

Schematic representation of different assay formats in the detection of small molecules. (a) In a direct assay, target analyte attaches to the antibody (recognition element) immobilized on the sensor surface; (b) in a competitive assay, the analyte competes with its conjugate to attach to the antibody; (c) in a binding inhibition assay, the analyte conjugate is the one immobilized on the sensing surface [94]. (Licensed CC BY 4.0).

Figure 8

(a) Schematic illustration of graphene-based field effect transistor (FET) biosensor mechanism and detection, where SARS-CoV-2 (spheres) binds to antibodies (Y-shapes). (b) Real-time response of COVID-19 FET toward SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. (c) Bionanosensor selectivity response toward two different proteins: SARS-CoV-2 and MERS-CoV. Reprinted from Seo et al. [69]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.

Figure 9

Biosensor response given by the variation of voltage in time for different concentrations of biomolecules [4] (licensed CC BY 4.0 from Sensors, 2020).

Figure 10

(a) Schematic illustration of AuNIs surface functionalization and bioaerosol detection. The surface of the AuINs was functionalized with succinimidyl-ester to detect bioaerosol. (b) In situ phase sensing response of surface functionalization, including the anchor 11-mercaptoundecanoic (11-MUA) and activator EDC/NHS. Reprinted Qiu et al. [219]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.

Figure 11

(a) Schematic diagram of a plasmonic biosensor. (b) Schematic illustration of surface modification of Au nanoisland and the thiol-cDNA ligands. (c) Different nucleic acid concentrations measured using the dual-functional LSPR biosensors Reprinted from Qiu et al. [1]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.