Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2021 Feb:103:217-219.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.11.160. Epub 2020 Nov 20.

A critical assessment of proposed outbreaks of plague and other epidemic diseases in Ancient Egypt

Michael E Habicht  1 , Patrick E Eppenberger  1 , Frank Rühli  2
Affiliations

A critical assessment of proposed outbreaks of plague and other epidemic diseases in Ancient Egypt

Michael E Habicht et al. Int J Infect Dis. 2021 Feb.

Abstract

The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has reminded us of past epidemics. Pharaonic Egypt has often been associated with epidemics and disasters through the 10 plagues in the Bible. The aim of this study was to examine which epidemics and serious diseases can be effectively proven for Ancient Egypt through mummies and historical source texts. The biblical plagues cannot be proven because there is no agreement on the dating of the Exodus, or the Exodus is a conglomeration of memories of different events. Other diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis have been proven for Ancient Egypt, while polio and smallpox are still uncertain. There are indications of a bubonic disease from the time of the middle 18th Dynasty, but its exact nature cannot be determined from source texts or mummies, as they are too vague.

Keywords: Antiquity COVID-19; Evolutionary; History; Medicine.

PubMed Disclaimer

References

    1. Cardin M. In: An Encyclopedia of Mummies in History, Religion and Popular Culture. Cardin M., editor. ABC Clio; Santa Barbara CA: 2014. Mummies around the World.
    1. Derry D.E. Mummification II - methods practiced at different periods. ASAE. 1942;41:240–265.
    1. Duggan A.T., Perdomo M.F., Piombino-Mascali D., Marciniak S., Poinar D., Emery M.V., et al. 17th Century Variola Virus Reveals the Recent History of Smallpox. Curr Biol [Internet] 2016;26(24):3407–3412. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Finḳelshṭain Y., Silberman N.A. C.H. Beck; München: 2006. Keine Posaunen vor Jericho: die archäologische Wahrheit über die Bibel.
    1. Fletcher J. Hodder and Stroughton; London: 2004. The Search for Nefertiti.

Publication types