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Review
. 2020 Dec 12;21(24):9462.
doi: 10.3390/ijms21249462.

Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in the Penicillium Genus

Christelle El Hajj Assaf  1   2 , Chrystian Zetina-Serrano  1 , Nadia Tahtah  1   3 , André El Khoury  3 , Ali Atoui  4 , Isabelle P Oswald  1 , Olivier Puel  1 , Sophie Lorber  1
Affiliations
Review

Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in the Penicillium Genus

Christelle El Hajj Assaf et al. Int J Mol Sci. .

Abstract

Penicillium, one of the most common fungi occurring in a diverse range of habitats, has a worldwide distribution and a large economic impact on human health. Hundreds of the species belonging to this genus cause disastrous decay in food crops and are able to produce a varied range of secondary metabolites, from which we can distinguish harmful mycotoxins. Some Penicillium species are considered to be important producers of patulin and ochratoxin A, two well-known mycotoxins. The production of these mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites is controlled and regulated by different mechanisms. The aim of this review is to highlight the different levels of regulation of secondary metabolites in the Penicillium genus.

Keywords: Penicillium; control of gene expression; regulation; secondary metabolism; transcription factors; virulence.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Biosynthetic pathways of secondary metabolites. In grey boxes, the typical backbone of secondary metabolites. In grey, the main mycotoxins produced by these pathways. In red, the enzymes associated with each pathway. In blue, separate PKS and NRPS are involved in ochratoxin A (OTA) biosynthesis; NRPS: non-ribosomal peptide synthetase, PKS: polyketide synthase, TC: terpene cyclase, DMATS: dimethylallyl tryptophan synthase. In bold, mycotoxins produced by Penicillium species.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Gene clusters of the patulin biosynthesis pathway (the first one at the top) (15 genes, 40 kb) [39] and the citrinin biosynthesis pathway (the middle group) (nine genes, 22 kb) [40,41] in Penicillium expansum; cluster of the calbistrin biosynthesis pathway (the third one at the bottom) (13 genes, 35kb) in Penicillium decumbens [42].
Figure 3
Figure 3
Global regulatory proteins involved in the regulation of gene clusters involved in the production of various secondary metabolites in Penicillium (1) citrinin, (2) patulin, (3) penicillin G, (4) roquefortine C, and (5) PR-toxin, adapted from Brakhage [45].
Figure 4
Figure 4
Operating model of the velvet complex in Aspergillus nidulans adapted from Bayram et al. [127]. In the presence of light, VeA is retained in the cytoplasm (-----), and LaeA has low activity. In the dark, VeA coupled to VelB is transported in the nucleus by the importin α KapA (——), and the velvet complex is formed with LaeA to activate the production of secondary metabolites and sexual development.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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