High Temperature and Elevated Carbon Dioxide Modify Berry Composition of Different Clones of Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Tempranillo

Abstract

Tempranillo is a grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) variety extensively used for world wine production which is expected to be affected by environmental parameters modified by ongoing global climate changes, i.e., increases in average air temperature and rise of atmospheric CO₂ levels. Apart from determining their effects on grape development and biochemical characteristics, this paper considers the intravarietal diversity of the cultivar Tempranillo as a tool to develop future adaptive strategies to face the impact of climate change on grapevine. Fruit-bearing cuttings of five clones (RJ43, CL306, T3, VN31, and 1084) were grown in temperature gradient greenhouses (TGGs), from fruit set to maturity, under two temperature regimes (ambient temperature vs. ambient temperature plus 4°C) and two CO₂ levels (ambient, ca. 400 ppm, vs. elevated, 700 ppm). Treatments were applied separately or in combination. The analyses carried out included berry phenological development, the evolution in the concentration of must compounds (organic acids, sugars, and amino acids), and total skin anthocyanins. Elevated temperature hastened berry ripening, sugar accumulation, and malic acid breakdown, especially when combined with high CO₂. Climate change conditions reduced the amino acid content 2 weeks after mid-veraison and seemed to delay amino acidic maturity. Elevated CO₂ reduced the decoupling effect of temperature on the anthocyanin to sugar ratio. The impact of these factors, taken individually or combined, was dependent on the clone analyzed, thus indicating certain intravarietal variability in the response of Tempranillo to these climate change-related factors.

Keywords: amino acids; anthocyanins; climate change; genetic variability; grapevine (Vitis vinifera); malic acid; sugars.

FIGURE 1

Elapsed time between fruit set and mid-veraison and between mid-veraison and maturity of the five Tempranillo clones grown under four temperature/CO₂ regimes: ambient temperature (T) or ambient temperature + 4°C (T + 4), combined with ambient CO₂ (ca. 400 ppm, ACO₂) or elevated CO₂ (700 ppm, ECO₂). Results (values are means ± SE) are presented according to the temperature (T or T + 4) and CO₂ regime (ACO₂ or ECO₂), (A) considering all the clones as altogether (n = 20–40) and (B) considering each clone individually (n = 4–8). Means with letters in common within each chart (A,B) and period are not significantly different according to the least significant difference (LSD) test (P > 0.05). Probability values (P) for the main effects of clone, P_(CL); temperature, P_(T); and CO₂, P_(CO2). ^∗∗∗P < 0.001; ^∗∗P < 0.01; ns, not significant. All probability values for the interactions of factors [P_{(CL × T)}, P_{(CL × CO2)}, P_{(T × CO2)}, and P_{(CL × T × CO2)}] were statistically not significant (P > 0.05).

FIGURE 2

Malic acid concentration of the five Tempranillo clones grown under four temperature/CO₂ regimes: ambient temperature (T) or ambient temperature + 4°C (T + 4), combined with ambient CO₂ (ca. 400 ppm, ACO₂) or elevated CO₂ (700 ppm, ECO₂). Data (values are means ± SE, n = 4) are presented according to temperature (T or T + 4) and CO₂ regime (ACO₂ or ECO₂) (A) throughout ripening and (B) at maturity. Data are presented according to the temperature (T or T + 4) and CO₂ regime (ACO₂ or ECO₂) and considering each clone individually. Means with letters in common are not significantly different according to the LSD test (P > 0.05). Probability values (P) for the main effects of clone, P_(CL); temperature, P_(T); and CO₂, P_(CO2). ***P < 0.001; *P < 0.05; ns, not significant. All probability values for the interactions of factors [P_{(CL × T)}, P_{(CL × CO2)}, P_{(T × CO2)}, and P_{(CL × T × CO2)}] were statistically not significant (P > 0.05).

FIGURE 3

Sugar concentration in berries of the five Tempranillo clones grown under four temperature/CO₂ regimes: ambient temperature (T) or ambient temperature + 4°C (T + 4), combined with ambient CO₂ (ca. 400 ppm, ACO₂) or elevated CO₂ (700 ppm, ECO₂). Data are presented according to temperature (T or T + 4) and CO₂ regime (ACO₂ or ECO₂) and considering each clone individually (values are means ± SE, n = 4): (A) throughout ripening and (B) 2 weeks after mid-veraison. Means with letters in common are not significantly different according to LSD test (P > 0.05). Probability values (P) for the main effects of clone, P_(CL); temperature, P_(T); and CO₂, P_(CO2). ***P < 0.001; *P < 0.05; ns, not significant. All probability values for the interactions of factors [P_{(CL × T)}, P_{(CL × CO2)}, P_{(T × CO2)}, and P_{(CL × T × CO2)}] were statistically not significant (P > 0.05).

FIGURE 4

Amino acid concentration in berries of the five Tempranillo clones grown under four temperature/CO₂ regimes: ambient temperature (T) or ambient temperature + 4°C (T + 4), combined with ambient CO₂ (ca. 400 ppm, ACO₂) or elevated CO₂ (700 ppm, ECO₂). Data are presented according to temperature (T or T + 4) and CO₂ regime (ACO₂ or ECO₂) and considering each clone individually (values are means ± SE, n = 3–4). (A) Throughout ripening and (B) at maturity. Relative abundance of amino acids (C) grouped by their precursor. Means with letters in common are not significantly different according to the LSD test (P > 0.05). Probability values (P) for the main effects of clone, P_(CL); temperature, P_(T); and CO₂, P_(CO2). ***P < 0.001; *P < 0.05; ns, not significant. All probability values for the interactions of factors [P_{(CL × T)}, P_{(CL × CO2)}, P_{(T × CO2)}, and P_{(CL × T × CO2)}] were statistically not significant (P > 0.05).

FIGURE 5

Total anthocyanin concentration in berries of the five Tempranillo clones grown under four temperature/CO₂ regimes: ambient temperature (T) or ambient temperature + 4°C (T + 4), combined with ambient CO₂ (ca. 400 ppm, ACO₂) or elevated CO₂ (700 ppm, ECO₂). Data are presented according to temperature (T or T + 4) and CO₂ regime (ACO₂ or ECO₂) and considering each clone individually (values are means ± SE, n = 4). (A) Throughout ripening and (B) at maturity. Means with letters in common are not significantly different (P > 0.05) according to the LSD test. Probability values (P) for the main effects of clone, P_(CL); temperature, P_(T); and CO₂, P_(CO2). ***P < 0.001; **P < 0.01; *P < 0.05; ns, not significant. All probability values for the interactions of factors [P_{(CL × T)}, P_{(CL × CO2)}, P_{(T × CO2)}, and P_{(CL × T × CO2)}] were statistically not significant (P > 0.05).

FIGURE 6

Anthocyanin to TSS ratio at maturity of the five Tempranillo clones grown under four temperature/CO₂ regimes: ambient temperature (T) or ambient temperature + 4°C (T + 4), combined with ambient CO₂ (ca. 400 ppm, ACO₂) or elevated CO₂ (700 ppm, ECO₂). Results (values are means ± SE) are presented according to: (A) clone identity (n = 15–16); (B) the temperature (T or T + 4) and CO₂ regime (ACO₂ or ECO₂) (n = 19–20); and (C) clone identity, temperature, and CO₂ regime (n = 3–4). Means with letters in common within each chart (A–C) are not significantly different according to the LSD test (P > 0.05). Probability values (P) for the main effects of clone, P_(CL); temperature, P_(T); and CO₂, P_(CO2). ***P < 0.001; *P < 0.05; ns, not significant. All probability values for the interactions of factors [P_{(CL × T)}, P_{(CL × CO2)}, P_{(T × CO2)}, and P_{(CL × T × CO2)}] were statistically not significant (P > 0.05).