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Review
. 2020 Dec 9:11:594672.
doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.594672. eCollection 2020.

Pathophysiology of Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability Throughout the Different Stages of Ischemic Stroke and Its Implication on Hemorrhagic Transformation and Recovery

Sara Bernardo-Castro  1 , João André Sousa  1 , Ana Brás  1 , Carla Cecília  1 , Bruno Rodrigues  1 , Luciano Almendra  1 , Cristina Machado  1 , Gustavo Santo  1 , Fernando Silva  1 , Lino Ferreira  2 , Isabel Santana  1   2 , João Sargento-Freitas  1   2
Affiliations
Review

Pathophysiology of Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability Throughout the Different Stages of Ischemic Stroke and Its Implication on Hemorrhagic Transformation and Recovery

Sara Bernardo-Castro et al. Front Neurol. .

Abstract

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a dynamic interface responsible for maintaining the central nervous system homeostasis. Its unique characteristics allow protecting the brain from unwanted compounds, but its impairment is involved in a vast number of pathological conditions. Disruption of the BBB and increase in its permeability are key in the development of several neurological diseases and have been extensively studied in stroke. Ischemic stroke is the most prevalent type of stroke and is characterized by a myriad of pathological events triggered by an arterial occlusion that can eventually lead to fatal outcomes such as hemorrhagic transformation (HT). BBB permeability seems to follow a multiphasic pattern throughout the different stroke stages that have been associated with distinct biological substrates. In the hyperacute stage, sudden hypoxia damages the BBB, leading to cytotoxic edema and increased permeability; in the acute stage, the neuroinflammatory response aggravates the BBB injury, leading to higher permeability and a consequent risk of HT that can be motivated by reperfusion therapy; in the subacute stage (1-3 weeks), repair mechanisms take place, especially neoangiogenesis. Immature vessels show leaky BBB, but this permeability has been associated with improved clinical recovery. In the chronic stage (>6 weeks), an increase of BBB restoration factors leads the barrier to start decreasing its permeability. Nonetheless, permeability will persist to some degree several weeks after injury. Understanding the mechanisms behind BBB dysregulation and HT pathophysiology could potentially help guide acute stroke care decisions and the development of new therapeutic targets; however, effective translation into clinical practice is still lacking. In this review, we will address the different pathological and physiological repair mechanisms involved in BBB permeability through the different stages of ischemic stroke and their role in the development of HT and stroke recovery.

Keywords: blood-brain barrier; hemorrhagic transformation; pathophysiology; permeability; stroke.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Structural composition and transport pathways across the blood–brain barrier. (A) Representation of the distribution of the NVU components. (B) Junctional complex of the brain endotelial cells: (I) Tight junctions: composed by JAMS, caludins and occludins. ZO proteins are represented in yellow (ZO-1), green (ZO-2) and blue (ZO-3); (II) Adherens Junction, cadhenins represented in green and caterins in gray; (III) GAP junctions. (C) Schematic representation of the transport pathways across the BBB.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Evolution of blood–brain barrier permeability throughout the different stages of stroke and the main pathophysiological processes in each stage.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Main events leading to hemorrhagic transformation after stroke.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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