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. 2021 Jan 29;1(1):CD013496.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013496.pub2.

Intermittent fasting for the prevention of cardiovascular disease

Mohammed Allaf #  1 , Hussein Elghazaly #  1 , Omer G Mohamed  1 , Mohamed Firas Khan Fareen  1 , Sadia Zaman  1 , Abdul-Majeed Salmasi  2 , Kostas Tsilidis  3   4 , Abbas Dehghan  5
Affiliations

Intermittent fasting for the prevention of cardiovascular disease

Mohammed Allaf et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. Lifestyle changes are at the forefront of preventing the disease. This includes advice such as increasing physical activity and having a healthy balanced diet to reduce risk factors. Intermittent fasting (IF) is a popular dietary plan involving restricting caloric intake to certain days in the week such as alternate day fasting and periodic fasting, and restricting intake to a number of hours in a given day, otherwise known as time-restricted feeding. IF is being researched for its benefits and many randomised controlled trials have looked at its benefits in preventing CVD.

Objectives: To determine the role of IF in preventing and reducing the risk of CVD in people with or without prior documented CVD.

Search methods: We conducted our search on 12 December 2019; we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE and Embase. We also searched three trials registers and searched the reference lists of included papers. Systematic reviews were also viewed for additional studies. There was no language restriction applied.

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials comparing IF to ad libitum feeding (eating at any time with no specific caloric restriction) or continuous energy restriction (CER). Participants had to be over the age of 18 and included those with and without cardiometabolic risk factors. Intermittent fasting was categorised into alternate-day fasting, modified alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting and time-restricted feeding.

Data collection and analysis: Five review authors independently selected studies for inclusion and extraction. Primary outcomes included all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, stroke, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. Secondary outcomes include the absolute change in body weight, and glucose. Furthermore, side effects such as headaches and changes to the quality of life were also noted. For continuous data, pooled mean differences (MD) (with 95% confidence intervals (CIs)) were calculated. We contacted trial authors to obtain missing data. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of the evidence. MAIN RESULTS: Our search yielded 39,165 records after the removal of duplicates. From this, 26 studies met our criteria, and 18 were included in the pooled analysis. The 18 studies included 1125 participants and observed outcomes ranging from four weeks to six months. No studies included data on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, stroke, myocardial infarction, and heart failure at any point during follow-up. Of quantitatively analysed data, seven studies compared IF with ab libitum feeding, eight studies compared IF with CER, and three studies compared IF with both ad libitum feeding and CER. Outcomes were reported at short term (≤ 3 months) and medium term (> 3 months to 12 months) follow-up. Body weight was reduced with IF compared to ad libitum feeding in the short term (MD -2.88 kg, 95% CI -3.96 to -1.80; 224 participants; 7 studies; low-certainty evidence). We are uncertain of the effect of IF when compared to CER in the short term (MD -0.88 kg, 95% CI -1.76 to 0.00; 719 participants; 10 studies; very low-certainty evidence) and there may be no effect in the medium term (MD -0.56 kg, 95% CI -1.68 to 0.56; 279 participants; 4 studies; low-certainty evidence). We are uncertain about the effect of IF on glucose when compared to ad libitum feeding in the short term (MD -0.03 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.26 to 0.19; 95 participants; 3 studies; very-low-certainty of evidence) and when compared to CER in the short term: MD -0.02 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.16 to 0.12; 582 participants; 9 studies; very low-certainty; medium term: MD 0.01, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.11; 279 participants; 4 studies; low-certainty evidence). The changes in body weight and glucose were not deemed to be clinically significant. Four studies reported data on side effects, with some participants complaining of mild headaches. One study reported on the quality of life using the RAND SF-36 score. There was a modest increase in the physical component summary score.

Authors' conclusions: Intermittent fasting was seen to be superior to ad libitum feeding in reducing weight. However, this was not clinically significant. There was no significant clinical difference between IF and CER in improving cardiometabolic risk factors to reduce the risk of CVD. Further research is needed to understand the safety and risk-benefit analysis of IF in specific patient groups (e.g. patients with diabetes or eating disorders) as well as the effect on longer-term outcomes such as all-cause mortality and myocardial infarction.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03652532 NCT01769976 NCT02679989 NCT02449148 NCT02673515 NCT02480504 NCT03404271 NCT00960505 NCT01741298 NCT02411838 NCT02169778 NCT02258399 NCT02134860 NCT03372109 NCT01571310 NCT02247076 NCT03528317 NCT01659450 NCT00099151 NCT00183027 NCT01754350 NCT01895179 NCT01964118 NCT02287103 NCT02525419 NCT02633722 NCT02970188 NCT03459703 NCT03569852 NCT03574103 NCT04009239 NCT01059760 NCT00467220 NCT02148458 NCT02606669 NCT02948517 NCT03792282.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

MA, HE, OM, SZ, MF, AD, AS and KS all state that there is no conflict of interest.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
'Risk of bia's summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
3
3
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 1: Absolute change in body weight (kg)
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 2: Absolute change in BMI (kg/m2).
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 3: Absolute change in waist circumference (cm)
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 4: Absolute change in total cholesterol levels (TC) (mmol/L)
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 5: Absolute change in LDL (mmol/L
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 6: Absolute change in HDL (mmol/L
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 7: Absolute change in TG (mmol/L)
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 8: Absolute change in SBP (mmHg)
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 9: Absolute change in DBP (mmHg)
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 10: Absolute change in CRP (mg/L)
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 11: Absolute change in Glucose (mmol/L)
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 1: Absolute change in Body Weight (Total) (kg)
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 2: Absolute change in Body Weight (Fasting subgroups) (kg)
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 3: Absolute change in Body Weight (Female subgroup) (Kg)
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 4: Absolute change in Body Weight (Overweight subgroups) (kg)
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 5: Absolute change in Body Weight (Diabetes subgroups) (kg)
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 6: Absolute change in BMI (kg/m2).
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 7: Absolute change in waist circumference (cm)
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 8: Absolute change in total cholesterol (mmol/l)
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 9: Absolute change in LDL (mmol/L)
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 10: Absolute change in HDL (mmol/L)
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 11: Absolute change in TG (mmol/L)
2.12
2.12. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 12: Absolute change in SBP (mmHg)
2.13
2.13. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 13: Absolute change in DBP (mmHg)
2.14
2.14. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 14: Absolute change in CRP (mg/L)
2.15
2.15. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 15: Absolute change in Glucose (mmol/L
2.16
2.16. Analysis
Comparison 2: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 16: Absolute change in HbA1c (mmol/L)
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 1: Absolute change in Body weight (kg)
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 2: Absolute change in BMI (kg/m2)
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 3: Absolute change in waist circumference (cm)
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 4: Absolute change in total cholesterol (mmol/L)
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 5: Absolute change in LDL (mmol/L)
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 6: Absolute change in HDL (mmol/L)
3.7
3.7. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 7: Absolute change in TG (mmol/L)
3.8
3.8. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 8: Absolute change in SBP (mmHg)
3.9
3.9. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 9: Absolute change in DBP (mmHg)
3.10
3.10. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 10: Absolute change in CRP (mg/L)
3.11
3.11. Analysis
Comparison 3: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 11: Absolute change in glucose (mmol/L)
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 1: Absolute change in body weight (kg)
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 2: Absolute change in BMI (kg/m2)
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 3: Absolute change in waist circumference (cm)
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 4: Absolute change in total cholesterol levels (TC) (mmol/L)
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 5: Absolute change in LDL (mmol/L)
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 6: Absolute change in HDL (mmol/L)
4.7
4.7. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 7: Absolute change in TG (mmol/L)
4.8
4.8. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 8: Absolute change in SBP (mmHg)
4.9
4.9. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 9: Absolute change in DBP (mmHg)
4.10
4.10. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 10: Absolute change in CRP (mg/L)
4.11
4.11. Analysis
Comparison 4: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs Ad libitum (Short term), Outcome 11: Absolute change in Glucose (mmol/L)
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 1: kbsolute change in Body Weight (Total) (kg)
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 2: Absolute change in Body Weight (Fasting subgroups) (kg)
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 3: Absolute change in Body Weight (Female subgroups) (kg)
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 4: Absolute change in Body Weight (Overweight subgroups) (kg)
5.5
5.5. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 5: Absolute change in Body Weight (Diabetes subgroups) (Kg)
5.6
5.6. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 6: Absolute change in BMI (kg/m2)
5.7
5.7. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 7: Absolute change in waist circumference (cm)
5.8
5.8. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 8: Absolute change in total cholesterol (mmol/L)
5.9
5.9. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 9: Absolute change in LDL (mmol/L)
5.10
5.10. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 10: Absolute change in HDL (mmol/L)
5.11
5.11. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 11: Absolute change in TG (mmol/L)
5.12
5.12. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 12: Absolute change in SBP (mmHg)
5.13
5.13. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 13: Absolute change in DBP (mmHg)
5.14
5.14. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 14: Absolute change in CRP (mg/L)
5.15
5.15. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 15: Absolute change in Glucose (mmol/L)
5.16
5.16. Analysis
Comparison 5: Sensitivity analysis; published data: IF vs CER (Short term), Outcome 16: Absolute change in HbA1c (mmol/L)
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 1: Absolute change in Body weight (kg)
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 2: Absolute change in BMI (kg/m2)
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 3: Absolute change in waist circumference (cm)
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 4: Absolute change in total cholesterol (mmol/L)
6.5
6.5. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 5: Absolute change in LDL (mmol/L)
6.6
6.6. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 6: Absolute change in HDL (mmol/L)
6.7
6.7. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 7: Absolute change in TG (mmol/L)
6.8
6.8. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 8: Absolute change in SBP (mmHg)
6.9
6.9. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 9: Absolute change in DBP (mmHg)
6.10
6.10. Analysis
Comparison 6: Sensitivity analysis: published data: IF vs CER (Medium term), Outcome 10: Absolute change in glucose (mmol/L)
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013496

References

References to studies included in this review

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Moro 2016 {published data only}
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Pinto 2019 {published data only}
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Stekovic 2019 {published data only}
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Actrn 2013 {published data only}
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    1. Bowen J, Brindal E, James-Martin G, Noakes M. Randomized trial of a high protein, partial meal replacement program with or without alternate day fasting: similar effects on weight loss, retention status, nutritional, metabolic, and behavioral outcomes. Nutrients 2018;10(9):1145. - PMC - PubMed
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References to studies awaiting assessment

Liu 2017 {published data only}
    1. Liu B, Hutchison AT, Thompson CH, Wittert GA, Heilbronn L. Adipose tissue remodeling following eight-week calorie restriction or intermittent fasting in females who are overweight and obese. Diabetes 2017;66:A550.
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ACTRN12619000246189 {published data only}
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ACTRN12619000757112 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12619000757112. The effect of intermittent fasting on muscle mass in overweight, middle-aged men. https://apps.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ACTRN12619000757112 2019.
ChiCTR1800016271 {published data only}
    1. ChiCTR1800016271. The effect of intermittent fasting in patients with overweight. https://apps.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ChiCTR1800016271 2018.
ChiCTR1800017557 {published data only}
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    1. ISRCTN32122407. The effects of early versus late time-restricted feeding on metabolic disease risk factors in adults at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes: is there an optimal time to eat? https://apps.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ISRCTN32122407 2019.
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NCT03411356 {published data only}
    1. NCT03411356. Intermittent fasting versus daily caloric restriction for weight loss. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03411356?term=Intermittent+Fastin... 2018.
NCT03439618 {published data only}
    1. NCT03439618. Comparison of time-restricted feeding and continuous feeding in critically ill patients. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03439618?cond=Comparison+of+Time-... 2018.
NCT03504683 {published data only}
    1. NCT03504683. Effect of time-restricted feeding on 24-hour glycemic control, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease risk factors. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03504683?term=Effect+of+Time-Rest... 2018.
NCT03527368 {published data only}
    1. NCT03527368. The Time-restricted Intake of Meals Study. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03527368?term=The+Time-Restricted... 2018.
NCT03539094 {published data only}
    1. NCT03539094. Intermittent fasting in multiple sclerosis. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03539094?term=Intermittent+Fastin... 2018.
NCT03689608 {published data only}
    1. NCT03689608. Daily vs intermittent restriction of energy: controlled trial to reduce diabetes risk (DIRECT). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03689608?term=Daily+vs+Intermitte... 2018.
NCT03745612 {published data only}
    1. NCT03745612. Time restricted feeding on weight loss and cardio-protection (TREATY trial). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03745612?cond=Time+Restricted+Fee... 2018.
NCT03789409 {published data only}
    1. NCT03789409. Intermittent fasting following acute ischemic stroke. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03789409?term=Intermittent+Fastin... 2018.
NCT03791203 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT03791203. Effectiveness and adherence of Modified Alternate-day Calorie Restriction (MACR) in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03791203?term=Effectiveness+and+A... 2019. - PMC - PubMed
NCT03792282 {published data only}
    1. NCT03792282. Time-Restricted Feeding(TRF) on overweight/obese women with Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) (TRF-PCOS). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03792282.
NCT03802253 {published data only}
    1. NCT03802253. Time Restricted Feeding on Impaired fasting Glucose(TRIG trial). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03802253?term=Time+Restricted+Fee... 2019.
NCT03805776 {published data only}
    1. NCT03805776. Intermittent fasting in dyslipidemia. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03805776?term=Intermittent+Fastin... 2019.
NCT04004403 {published data only}
    1. NCT04004403. Alternate day fasting combined and NAFLD for the treatment of Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04004403?term=Alternate+Day+Fasti... 2019.
NCT04057339 {published data only}
    1. NCT04057339. The influence of time-restricted eating in patients metabolic syndrome. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04057339?term=The+Influence+of+Ti... 2019.
NCT04062773 {published data only}
    1. NCT04062773. Time-restricted feeding on glucose homeostasis and quality of life. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04062773?cond=Time-Restricted+Fee... 2019.
NCT04138160 {published data only}
    1. NCT04138160. Effects of two weeks of 5: 2 intermittent energy restriction on basal and postprandial metabolism. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04138160?term=Effects+of+Two+Week... 2019.
NCT04143971 {published data only}
    1. NCT04143971. Intermittent fasting in hypertriglyceridemic overweight or obese subjects. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04143971?term=Intermittent+Fastin... 2019.
NCT04155619 {published data only}
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SLCTR/2018/001 {published data only}
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References to other published versions of this review

Allaf 2019
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