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. 2021 Aug:276:130211.
doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130211. Epub 2021 Mar 9.

Trends in urinary metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the non-smoking U.S. population, NHANES 2001-2014

Barbara Hudson-Hanley  1 , Ellen Smit  2 , Adam Branscum  3 , Perry Hystad  4 , Molly L Kile  4
Affiliations

Trends in urinary metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the non-smoking U.S. population, NHANES 2001-2014

Barbara Hudson-Hanley et al. Chemosphere. 2021 Aug.

Abstract

Background: Recent studies indicate airborne PAH levels have decreased in the U.S., but it is unclear if this has resulted in PAH exposure changes in the U.S.

Objective: Examine temporal trends in urinary metabolites of Naphthalene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene, and Pyrene in U.S. non-smokers, 6+ years old.

Methods: We used biomonitoring data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) program, 2001-2014, (N = 11,053) using survey weighted linear regression. Models were adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, creatinine, BMI, income, diet, and seasonality. Stratified models evaluated the effect of age, sex, and race/ethnicity on trends.

Results: Between 2001 and 2014, Naphthalene exposure increased 36% (p < 0.01); Pyrene exposure increased 106% (p < 0.01); Fluorene and Phenanthrene exposure decreased 55% (p < 0.01), and 37% (p < 0.01), respectively. Naphthalene was the most abundant urinary PAH, 20-fold higher than Fluorene and Phenanthrene, and over 50-fold higher than Pyrene compared to reference groups, effect modification was observed by age (Naphthalene, Pyrene), sex (Fluorene, Pyrene), and race/ethnicity (Naphthalene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene, Pyrene).

Significance: This study shows exposure to Naphthalene and Pyrene increased, while exposure to Fluorene and Phenanthrene decreased among the non-smoking U.S. general population between 2001 and 2014, suggesting environmental sources of PAHs have changed over the time period.

Keywords: Air pollution; Human biomonitoring; NHANES; Naphthalene; PAHs; Pyrene.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Trends in uPAHs (ug/L) in the U.S. non-smoking population, age 6+ years, by 25th, 50th 75th and 95th percentile, 2001-2014. Weighted aGM and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for each NHANES cycle estimated from linear regression models adjusted for urinary creatinine, age, sex, race/ethnicity, BMI, dietary sources of PAHs, PIR, and seasonality. (A) uNAP: sum of urinary Naphthalene metabolites (1- & 2-naphthol); (B) uFLU: sum of urinary Fluorene metabolites (2- & 3-fluorene); (C) uPHEN: sum of urinary Phenanthrene metabolites (1-, 2- & 3-phenanthrene); (D) uPYR: urinary Pyrene metabolites. See Table 1 to view these results in tabular form. (‡) The delta in trend values between 2001-02 and 2013-14 for the 25th and 50th percentiles are within the maximal analytical error for urinary Pyrene metabolite (0.07 ug/L).
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Trends in uPAH metabolites by race/ethnicity in U.S. non-smokers, age 6+ years, 2001-2014. Weighted aGM and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for each NHANES cycle estimated from linear regression models adjusted for urinary creatinine, age, sex, BMI, dietary sources of PAHs, PIR, and seasonality; interaction term is NHANES cycle##race/ethnicity. (A) uNAP: sum of urinary Naphthalene metabolites (1- & 2-naphthol) (B) uFLU: sum of urinary Fluorene metabolites (2- & 3-fluorene) (C) uPHEN: sum of urinary Phenanthrene metabolites (1-, 2- & 3-phenanthrene) (D) uPYR: urinary Pyrene metabolite. MA: Mexican American; NHW: Non-Hispanic White; NHB: Non-Hispanic Black; Other/Multi: Other/Multi-Racial. See Table 2B for more information. (‡) The change in urinary pyrene concentrations between 2001-02 and 2013-14 for Non-Hispanic White and Other/Multi-Racial groups are within the maximal analytical error.
Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Trends in uPAH metabolites for children 6-17 years and adults 18+ years, in U.S. non-smokers, 2001-2014. Weighted aGM and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for each NHANES cycle estimated from linear regression models adjusted for urinary creatinine, sex, race/ethnicity, BMI, dietary sources of PAHs, PIR, and seasonality; interaction term is NHANES cycle##age. (A) uNAP: sum of urinary Naphthalene metabolites (1- & 2-naphthol), n = 11,028. (B) uFLU: sum of urinary Fluorene metabolites (2- & 3-fluorene), n = 10,989. (C) uPHEN: sum of urinary Phenanthrene metabolites (1-, 2- & 3-phenanthrene), n = 11,012. (D) uPYR: urinary Pyrene metabolites, n = 10,955. See Table 2A for more information. (‡) The delta in trend values between 2001-02 and 2013-14 for the 25th and 50th percentiles are within the maximal analytical error for urinary Pyrene metabolite (0.07 ug/L).
Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Trends in uPAH metabolites for males and females, age 6+ years, in U.S. non-smokers, 2001-2014. Weighted aGM and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for each NHANES cycle estimated from linear regression models adjusted for urinary creatinine, age, race/ethnicity, BMI, dietary sources of PAHs, PIR, and seasonality; interaction term is NHANES cycle##sex. (A) uNAP: sum of urinary Naphthalene metabolites (1- & 2-naphthol), n = 11,028. (B) uFLU: sum of urinary Fluorene metabolites (2- & 3-fluorene), n = 10,989. (C) uPHEN: sum of urinary Phenanthrene metabolites (1-, 2- & 3-phenanthrene), n = 11,012. (D) uPYR: urinary Pyrene metabolites, n = 10,955. See Table 2A for more information. (‡) The delta in trend values between 2001-02 and 2013-14 for the 25th and 50th percentiles are within the maximal analytical error for urinary Pyrene metabolite (0.07 ug/L).
Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Trends in uPAH metabolites for males and females at reproductive age (18-49 years), in U.S. non-smokers, 2001-2014. Estimated weighted aGM(b) and 95%CI by NHANES cycle. Weighted aGM and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for each NHANES cycle estimated from linear regression models adjusted for urinary creatinine, age, race/ethnicity, BMI, dietary sources of PAHs, PIR, and seasonality; interaction term is NHANES cycle##sex, age restricted to 18-49 years. (A) uNAP: sum of urinary Naphthalene metabolites (1- & 2-naphthol), n = 11,028. (B) uFLU: sum of urinary Fluorene metabolites (2- & 3-fluorene), n = 10,989. (C) uPHEN: sum of urinary Phenanthrene metabolites (1-, 2- & 3-phenanthrene), n = 11,012. (D) uPYR: urinary Pyrene metabolites, n = 10,955. See Table 2A for more information. (‡) The delta in trend values between 2001-02 and 2013-14 for the 25th and 50th percentiles are within the maximal analytical error for urinary Pyrene metabolite (0.07 ug/L).
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