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. 2021 Mar 16;18(6):3046.
doi: 10.3390/ijerph18063046.

Application Intensity and Spatial Distribution of Three Major Herbicides from Agricultural and Nonagricultural Practices in the Central Plain of Thailand

Suphaphat Kwonpongsagoon  1   2 , Chanokwan Katasila  1 , Pornpimol Kongtip  2   3 , Susan Woskie  4
Affiliations

Application Intensity and Spatial Distribution of Three Major Herbicides from Agricultural and Nonagricultural Practices in the Central Plain of Thailand

Suphaphat Kwonpongsagoon et al. Int J Environ Res Public Health. .

Abstract

The herbicides glyphosate, paraquat, and 2,4-D play a significant role in Thailand. This paper is among the first study to describe the intensity of herbicide application and illustrate how the herbicides are extensively distributed over a large area through both agricultural and nonagricultural practices. Using a quick, economical, and simplified method of Material Flow Analysis together with spatial analysis, better data for the analysis of possible environmental herbicide contamination, human exposure, and related health risks for the general public and applicators can be developed. The findings from this study showed that in the study province, about 2.2 million kg of the active ingredients from the three targeted herbicides is applied annually. Pathway flow modeling with spatial analysis identified several local hotspots of concern based on the type of herbicide and crop/activity where it was used. Cassava planting was found to have the highest herbicide application activity, whereas rice cultivation was the major contributor of total herbicide mass, due to the wide area of cultivation in the province. The herbicide most likely to be applied at rates higher than recommended was 2,4-D, particularly on cassava and sugarcane farms.

Keywords: 2,4-D; Thailand; agriculture; environmental contamination; glyphosate; health risk; herbicide; non-agriculture; paraquat.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Boundary of Nakhon Sawan province, Thailand, showing boundaries of districts, forest, main rivers, and their tributaries.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Schematic flow diagram for combining material flow analysis and land use analysis in this study.
Figure 3
Figure 3
System analysis of herbicides (glyphosate, paraquat, 2,4-D) in Nakhon Sawan: (a) herbicide flow model by MFA; (b) spatial distribution of land use according to the MFA model. The abbreviation used in Figure 3a: rice (R), sugarcane (Su), maize (Ma), cassava (Ca), school (Sc), household (Ho), glyphosate (Gly), herbicides (Herb), volatilization from soil (Vol), runoff (Run), drainage (DR), and residue (Res).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Period of herbicides application in Nakhon Sawan, central plain of Thailand.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Herbicide flow model for glyphosate, paraquat, and 2,4-D applications in Nakhon Sawan Province (tonne a.i. per year).
Figure 6
Figure 6
Spatial distribution of total herbicide loading (kg a.i./ha/yr) through various application sources in Nakhon Sawan Province, Thailand.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Spatial distribution of individual herbicide loading (kg a.i./ha/yr) from various application sources to Nakhon Sawan Province, Thailand: (a) glyphosate; (b) paraquat; (c) 2,4-D.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Spatial distribution of individual herbicide loading (kg a.i./ha/yr) from various application sources to Nakhon Sawan Province, Thailand: (a) glyphosate; (b) paraquat; (c) 2,4-D.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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