The Science and Biomechanics of Long-Toss

Abstract

Purpose of review: Overhead throwing is a particularly violent motion that requires a complex sequence of timed muscle activations to efficiently transfer energy up the kinetic chain to throw a ball. Long-toss has long been utilized as a means of increasing shoulder range of motion, strength, and endurance, as well as an important component of rehabilitation in interval throwing programs. The purpose of this review is to assess the current literature on the science and biomechanics of long-toss.

Recent findings: While long-toss is ubiquitously utilized in throwing programs for pitchers of all ages, the definition of long-toss, as well as its primary function in a throwing program, is debated. Throwing biomechanics in long-toss differ from that of mound pitching, although much of the variation is determined by the type of long-toss: shorter distance and on a line versus maximum distance and not on a line. Biomechanical factors including the kinematic changes of increased maximum glenohumeral external rotation, increased maximum elbow flexion, decreased trunk forward flexion at front foot contact, kinetic changes of increased shoulder internal rotation torque, increased elbow varus torque, and increased elbow extension velocity can occur with maximum distance long-toss throwing. Long-toss is a highly variable training supplement that is used in throwing programs at all levels of baseball competition. Current literature has demonstrated a number of kinetic and kinematic changes in the throwing arm and throwing motion related to increasing long-toss distances. However, the exact benefits of long-toss are difficult to quantify due to the numerous definitions and various utilizations of long-toss.

Keywords: Long-toss; Overhead athlete; Pitching; Thrower; Throwing program.

Fig. 1

The six phases of overhead throwing: wind-up, stride/early cocking, late cocking, acceleration, deceleration, and follow-through. (Reproduced with permission from Fleisig et al. [26])

Fig. 2

The crow-hop motion leading up to the start of the overhead throwing motion often utilized in long-toss. (Reproduced with permission from Stone et al. [13])