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Review
. 2021 Sep 14;105(3):570-592.
doi: 10.1093/biolre/ioab085.

Epigenetic transgenerational inheritance, gametogenesis and germline development†

Millissia Ben Maamar  1 , Eric E Nilsson  1 , Michael K Skinner  1
Affiliations
Review

Epigenetic transgenerational inheritance, gametogenesis and germline development†

Millissia Ben Maamar et al. Biol Reprod. .

Abstract

One of the most important developing cell types in any biological system is the gamete (sperm and egg). The transmission of phenotypes and optimally adapted physiology to subsequent generations is in large part controlled by gametogenesis. In contrast to genetics, the environment actively regulates epigenetics to impact the physiology and phenotype of cellular and biological systems. The integration of epigenetics and genetics is critical for all developmental biology systems at the cellular and organism level. The current review is focused on the role of epigenetics during gametogenesis for both the spermatogenesis system in the male and oogenesis system in the female. The developmental stages from the initial primordial germ cell through gametogenesis to the mature sperm and egg are presented. How environmental factors can influence the epigenetics of gametogenesis to impact the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of phenotypic and physiological change in subsequent generations is reviewed.

Keywords: Epigenetics; Gametogenesis; Oogenesis; PGCs; Review; Spermatogenesis; Transgenerational.

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Human germline development. Just after fertilization, a zygote is formed. At week 1, the blastocyst develops and contains pluripotent epiblast cells, which will give rise to all lineages in the embryo, including the germ line. At week 2, the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall. The human primordial germ cells (hPGCs) are probably specified around the time of gastrulation around week 3. At week 4, the hPGCs are localized near the yolk sac wall close to the allantois. After that stage, the hPGCs migrate through the hindgut to the developing genital ridges. At this developmental stage, the migrating hPGCs go through a genome-wide epigenetic reprogramming, including global DNA demethylation, to erase imprints and other somatic epigenetic marks. During the fetus development and adult life, the germ line will undergo meiosis and gametogenesis to differentiate into sperm and eggs. At the same time, the genome is remethylated and acquires appropriate epigenetic signatures for the generation of a totipotent zygote upon fertilization (modified from [1]).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Epigenetic reprogramming (DNA methylation erasure) during primordial germ cell development at gonadal sex determination and following fertilization in the early embryo (modified from [283]).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Gametogenesis and spermatogenic germ cell stages (modified from [162]).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Oogenesis and ovarian follicle stages.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Epigenetic mechanisms and processes (marks) (modified from [330]).
Figure 6
Figure 6
Environmentally induced epigenetic transgenerational inheritance. Various exposures and species investigated (modified from [156]).
Figure 7
Figure 7
Environmentally induced transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Schematic of multigenerational versus transgenerational environmental exposures (modified from [324]).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

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