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. 2021 May 5;5(5):CD007899.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD007899.pub3.

Paying for performance to improve the delivery of health interventions in low- and middle-income countries

Karin Diaconu  1 , Jennifer Falconer  1 , Adrian Verbel  2 , Atle Fretheim  3   4 , Sophie Witter  1
Affiliations

Paying for performance to improve the delivery of health interventions in low- and middle-income countries

Karin Diaconu et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: There is growing interest in paying for performance (P4P) as a means to align the incentives of healthcare providers with public health goals. Rigorous evidence on the effectiveness of these strategies in improving health care and health in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is lacking; this is an update of the 2012 review on this topic.

Objectives: To assess the effects of paying for performance on the provision of health care and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries.

Search methods: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and 10 other databases between April and June 2018. We also searched two trial registries, websites, online resources of international agencies, organizations and universities, and contacted experts in the field. Studies identified from rerunning searches in 2020 are under 'Studies awaiting classification.'

Selection criteria: We included randomized or non-randomized trials, controlled before-after studies, or interrupted time series studies conducted in LMICs (as defined by the World Bank in 2018). P4P refers to the transfer of money or material goods conditional on taking a measurable action or achieving a predetermined performance target. To be included, a study had to report at least one of the following outcomes: patient health outcomes, changes in targeted measures of provider performance (such as the delivery of healthcare services), unintended effects, or changes in resource use.

Data collection and analysis: We extracted data as per original review protocol and narratively synthesised findings. We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Given diversity and variability in intervention types, patient populations, analyses and outcome reporting, we deemed meta-analysis inappropriate. We noted the range of effects associated with P4P against each outcome of interest. Based on intervention descriptions provided in documents, we classified design schemes and explored variation in effect by scheme design.

Main results: We included 59 studies: controlled before-after studies (19), non-randomized (16) or cluster randomized trials (14); and interrupted time-series studies (9). One study included both an interrupted time series and a controlled before-after study. Studies focused on a wide range of P4P interventions, including target payments and payment for outputs as modified by quality (or quality and equity assessments). Only one study assessed results-based aid. Many schemes were funded by national governments (23 studies) with the World Bank funding most externally funded schemes (11 studies). Targeted services varied; however, most interventions focused on reproductive, maternal and child health indicators. Participants were predominantly located in public or in a mix of public, non-governmental and faith-based facilities (54 studies). P4P was assessed predominantly at health facility level, though districts and other levels were also involved. Most studies assessed the effects of P4P against a status quo control (49 studies); however, some studies assessed effects against comparator interventions (predominantly enhanced financing intended to match P4P funds (17 studies)). Four studies reported intervention effects against both comparator and status quo. Controlled before-after studies were at higher risk of bias than other study designs. However, some randomised trials were also downgraded due to risk of bias. The interrupted time-series studies provided insufficient information on other concurrent changes in the study context. P4P compared to a status quo control For health services that are specifically targeted, P4P may slightly improve health outcomes (low certainty evidence), but few studies assessed this. P4P may also improve service quality overall (low certainty evidence); and probably increases the availability of health workers, medicines and well-functioning infrastructure and equipment (moderate certainty evidence). P4P may have mixed effects on the delivery and use of services (low certainty evidence) and may have few or no distorting unintended effects on outcomes that were not targeted (low-certainty evidence), but few studies assessed these. For secondary outcomes, P4P may make little or no difference to provider absenteeism, motivation or satisfaction (low certainty evidence); but may improve patient satisfaction and acceptability (low certainty evidence); and may positively affect facility managerial autonomy (low certainty evidence). P4P probably makes little to no difference to management quality or facility governance (low certainty evidence). Impacts on equity were mixed (low certainty evidence). For health services that are untargeted, P4P probably improves some health outcomes (moderate certainty evidence); may improve the delivery, use and quality of some health services but may make little or no difference to others (low certainty evidence); and may have few or no distorting unintended effects (low certainty evidence). The effects of P4P on the availability of medicines and other resources are uncertain (very low certainty evidence). P4P compared to other strategies For health outcomes and services that are specifically targeted, P4P may make little or no difference to health outcomes (low certainty evidence), but few studies assessed this. P4P may improve service quality (low certainty evidence); and may have mixed effects on the delivery and use of health services and on the availability of equipment and medicines (low certainty evidence). For health outcomes and services that are untargeted, P4P may make little or no difference to health outcomes and to the delivery and use of health services (low certainty evidence). The effects of P4P on service quality, resource availability and unintended effects are uncertain (very low certainty evidence). Findings of subgroup analyses Results-based aid, and schemes using payment per output adjusted for service quality, appeared to yield the greatest positive effects on outcomes. However, only one study evaluated results-based aid, so the effects may be spurious. Overall, schemes adjusting both for quality of service and rewarding equitable delivery of services appeared to perform best in relation to service utilization outcomes.

Authors' conclusions: The evidence base on the impacts of P4P schemes has grown considerably, with study quality gradually increasing. P4P schemes may have mixed effects on outcomes of interest, and there is high heterogeneity in the types of schemes implemented and evaluations conducted. P4P is not a uniform intervention, but rather a range of approaches. Its effects depend on the interaction of several variables, including the design of the intervention (e.g., who receives payments ), the amount of additional funding, ancillary components (such as technical support) and contextual factors (including organizational context).

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Conflict of interest statement

KD: none.

JF: none.

AV: none.

AF: none.

SW: none.

Figures

1
1
PRISMA flow chart. LMIC: low‐ to‐ middle‐income countries; P4P: paying for performance.
2
2
Risk of bias graph.
3
3
Risk of bias summary.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

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Rusa 2009b {published data only}
    1. Rusa L, Schneidman M, Fritsche G, Musango L. Chapter 10. Rwanda: performance-based financing in the public sector. In: Performance Incentives for Global Health: Potential and Pitfalls. Washington (DC): Center for Global Development, 2009:189-214. [URL: www.cgdev.org/sites/default/files/9781933286297-Levine-performance-incen...]
Shen 2015 {published data only}
    1. Shen G, Nguyen HT, Das AK, Sachingongu N, Chans C, Friedman J, et al. Results-based financing's impact on human resources for health in Zambia, 2015. www.rbfhealth.org/sites/rbf/files/Zambia%20RBFHRH%20report.pdf (accessed prior to 4 April 2021). [URL: www.rbfhealth.org/sites/rbf/files/Zambia%20RBFHRH%20report.pdf]
Singh 2015 {published data only}
    1. Singh P. Performance pay and information: reducing child undernutrition in India. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 2015;112:141-63.
Soeters 2005 {unpublished data only}
    1. Soeters R, Musango L, Meessen B. Comparison of two output based schemes in Butare and Cyangugu provinces with two control provinces in Rwanda. GBPOA, World Bank, Ministry of Health Rwanda. 2005.
Soeters 2008 {unpublished data only}
    1. Soeters R, Kimakuka C. Résultats de l’enquête ménage, l’enquête qualité, et l’enquête infirmiers titulaires. Pour le Programme Achat de Performance dans les Zones de Santé du District Sanitaire Nord du Sud Kivu. The Hague: CORDAID. 2008.
Soeters 2009 {unpublished data only}
    1. Soeters R, Kiwanuka C. Rapport de l'Etude d'Evaluation du programme Achat de Performance dans les Provinces Bubanza et Cankuzo, basé sur les résultats des enquêtes ménages, qualité et infirmiers titulaires réalisées en 2006 et 2008. 2008.
Sylvia 2015 {published data only}
    1. Sylvia SY. Managerial Incentives in Public Service Delivery: Evidence from School-Based Nutrition Programs in Rural China [Thesis]. Maryland (MD): University of Maryland, 2015. [URL: hdl.handle.net/1903/15457]
Valadez 2015 {published data only}
    1. Valadez JJ, Jeffery C, Brant T, Vargas W, Pagano M. Final impact assessment of the results-based financing programme for Northern Uganda. Department for International Development 2015. [URL: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/607579...]
Vergeer 2008 {unpublished data only}
    1. Vergeer P, Chansa C. Payment for performance (P4P) evaluation. Zambia Country Report for CORDAID. 2008.
World Bank 2015 {published data only}
    1. World Bank. India – impact evaluation of results-based payments for hospital care for the poor in Karnataka state (English). Washington, DC: World Bank Group. Health, Nutrition, and Population Global Practice Discussion Paper 97519. 2015.
Zeng 2018a {published data only}
    1. Zeng W, Shepard DS, Nguyen H, Chansa C, Das AK, Qamruddin J, et al. Cost–effectiveness of results-based financing, Zambia: a cluster randomized trial. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2018;96(11):760-71. - PMC - PubMed
Zhang 2017 {published data only}
    1. Zhang W, Luo H, Ma Y, Guo Y, Fang Q, Yang Z, et al. Monetary incentives for provision of syphilis screening, Yunnan, China. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2017;95(9):657-62. - PMC - PubMed
Zhao 2013 {published data only}
    1. Zhao Y, Huo Z, Wu J, Xie S, Zhang L, Feng Z. Impact on the performance of health workers adopted performance-related contracts in the provision of basic public health service at village and township levels. Iranian Journal of Public Health 2013;42(4):358-67. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Adato 2010 {published data only}
    1. Adato M, Roopnaraine T. Women's Status, Gender Relations, and Conditional Cash Transfers. In: Adato, M, Hoddinott J, editors(s). Conditional cash transfers in Latin America. Baltimore, MD: The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) by Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010:31-314.
Adzei 2012 {published data only}
    1. Adzei FA, Atinga RA. Motivation and retention of health workers in Ghana's district hospitals: addressing the critical issues. Journal of Health Organization & Management 2012;26:467-85. - PubMed
Aghajani 2019 {published data only}
    1. Aghajani MH, Manavi S, Maher A, Rafiei S, Ayoubian A, Shahrami A, et al. Pay for performance in hospital management: a case study. International Journal of Healthcare Management 24 Sep 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/20479700.2019.1664029] - DOI
Ahmed 2019 {published data only}
    1. Ahmed T, Arur A, De Walque D, Shapira G. Incentivizing quantity and quality of care: evidence from an impact evaluation of performance-based financing in the health sector in Tajikistan, 2019. openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/32154 (accessed prior to 4 April 2021).
Anonymous 1962 {published data only}
    1. Anonymous. Report on the incentive payment system for the workers employed in the Indian undertakings of the public sector. Not reported 1962.
Anonymous 2006 {published data only}
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Baral 2012 {published data only}
    1. Baral G. An assessment of the safe delivery incentive program at a tertiary level hospital in Nepal. Journal of Nepal Health Research Council 2012;10(21):118-24. - PubMed
Basinga 2009 {published data only}
    1. Basinga P. Impact of Performance-Based Financing on the quantity and quality of maternal health services in Rwanda. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2009;70(4-B):192-226.
Berg 2013 {published data only}
    1. Berg E, Ghatak, M, Manjula R, Rajasekhar D, Roy S. Motivating Knowledge Agents: Can Incentive Pay Overcome Social Distance? CSAE Working Paper Series 2013-06, Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford.
Bernal 2020 {published data only}
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Binyaruka 2018c {published data only}
    1. Binyaruka P, Robberstad B, Torsvik G, Borghi J. Does payment for performance increase performance inequalities across health providers? A case study of Tanzania. Health Policy and Planning 2018;33(9):1026-36. - PMC - PubMed
Brenner 2018 {published data only}
    1. Brenner S, Mazalale J, Wilhelm D, Nesbitt RC, Lohela TJ, Chinkhumba J, et al. Impact of results-based financing on effective obstetric care coverage: evidence from a quasi-experimental study in Malawi. BMC Health Services Research 2018;18:791. - PMC - PubMed
Brenner 2020 {published data only}
    1. Brenner S, Chase RP, McMahon SA, Lohmann J, Makwero CJ, Muula AS, et al. Effect heterogeneity in responding to performance-based incentives: a quasi-experimental comparison of impacts on health service indicators between hospitals and health centers in Malawi. Health Systems & Reform 2020;6(1):e1745580. - PubMed
Carmichael 2019 {published data only}
    1. Carmichael SL, Mehta K, Raheel H, Srikantiah S, Chaudhuri I, Trehan S, et al. Effects of team-based goals and non-monetary incentives on front-line health worker performance and maternal health behaviours: a cluster randomised controlled trial in Bihar, India. BMJ Global Health 2019;4(4):e001146. - PMC - PubMed
Celhay 2019 {published data only}
    1. Celhay PA, Gertler PJ, Giovagnoli P, Vermeersch C. Long-run effects of temporary incentives on medical care productivity. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2019;11(3):92-127.
Chariwala 2020 {published data only}
    1. Chariwala RA, Shukla R, Gajiwala UR, Gilbert C, Pant H, Lewis MG, et al. Effectiveness of health education and monetary incentive on uptake of diabetic retinopathy screening at a community health center in South Gujarat, India. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 2020;68(Suppl 1):S52-5. - PMC - PubMed
Chinkhumba 2020 {published data only}
    1. Chinkhumba J, De Allegri M, Brenner S, Muula A, Robberstad B. The cost-effectiveness of using results-based financing to reduce maternal and perinatal mortality in Malawi. BMJ Global Health 2020;5:5. - PMC - PubMed
Chukwuma 2017 {published data only}
    1. Chukwuma A, Mbachu C, McConnell M, Bossert T, Cohen J. Do performance-based monetary incentives for referrals by traditional birth attendants increase postnatal care use? Evidence from a Nigerian field experiment. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2017;97(5):283.
Dansereau 2019 {published data only}
    1. Dansereau EA. Results based aid for universal health coverage in poor and indigenous communities: Impact evaluation of the Salud Mesoamerica initiative. ResearchWorks Archive 2019;80(8-B(E)). [digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/handle/1773/43609]
Das 2019 {published data only}
    1. Das A, George B, Ranebennur V, Parthasarathy MR, Shreenivas GS, Todankar P, et al. Getting to the first 90: incentivized peer mobilizers promote HIV testing services to men who have sex with men using social media in Mumbai, India. Global Health: Science and Practice 2019;7(3):469-77. - PMC - PubMed
De Allegri 2019a {published data only}
    1. De Allegri M, Makwero C, Torbica A. At what cost is performance-based financing implemented? Novel evidence from Malawi. Health Policy and Planning 2019;34(4):282-8. - PubMed
De Allegri 2019b {published data only}
    1. De Allegri M, Chase RP, Lohmann J, Schoeps A, Muula AS, Brenner S. Effect of results-based financing on facility-based maternal mortality at birth: an interrupted time-series analysis with independent controls in Malawi. BMJ Global Health 2019;4:e001184. - PMC - PubMed
De Allegri 2019c {published data only}
    1. De Allegri M, Lohmann J, Souares A, Hillebrecht M, Hamadou S, Hien H, et al. Responding to policy makers' evaluation needs: combining experimental and quasi-experimental approaches to estimate the impact of performance based financing in Burkina Faso. BMC Health Services Research 2019;19(1):733. - PMC - PubMed
Demirkiran 2016 {published data only}
    1. Demirkiran M, Yorulmaz M, Unal S, Taskaya S, Carikci O. Effects of the Performance-Based Remuneration System: What Do Nurses Think? Research Journal of Business and Management 2016;3(1):88-96.
Deressa 2019 {published data only}
    1. Deressa AT, Zeru G. Work motivation and its effects on organizational performance: the case of nurses in Hawassa public and private hospitals: mixed method study approach. BMC Research Notes 2019;12:213. - PMC - PubMed
De Walque 2018 {published data only}
    1. De Walque D, Robyn PJ, Saidou H, Sorgho G, Steenland M. The impact of performance-based financing on the delivery of HIV testing, prevention of mother to child transmission and antiretroviral delivery in the Cameroon health system. Journal of the International AIDS Society 2018;21(Suppl 6):e25148.
De Walque 2020 {published data only}
    1. de Walque D, Chukwuma A, Ayivi-Guedehoussou N, Koshkakaryan M. A randomized evaluation of demand-side interventions for health screenings in Armenia. documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/672701596200009570/pdf/Invitations-I... (accessed prior to 4 April 2021).
Diclemente 1998 {published data only}
    1. Diclemente R, Wingood GM. Monetary incentives: a useful strategy for enhancing enrollment and promoting participation in HIV/STD risk reduction interventions. Sexually Transmitted Infections 1998;74(4):239-40. - PubMed
Duchoslav 2019 {published data only}
    1. Duchoslav J, Cecchi F. Do incentives matter when working for god? The impact of performance-based financing on faith-based healthcare in Uganda. World Development 2019;113:309-19.
Egbe 2016 {published data only}
    1. Egbe TO, Atashili J, Talla E, Atanga MB. Effect of performance based financing home visiting on the use of modern methods of contraception in the Kumbo east health district, Cameroon. Contraception and Reproductive Medicine 2016;1:19. - PMC - PubMed
El Bcheraou 2018 {published data only}
    1. El Bcheraoui C, Kamath AM, Dansereau E, Palmisano EB, Schaefer A, Hernandez B, et al. Results-based aid with lasting effects: Sustainability in the Salud Mesoamerica Initiative 11 Medical and Health Sciences 1117 Public Health and Health Services 16 Studies in Human Society 1605 Policy and Administration. Globalization and Health 2018;14(1):97. - PMC - PubMed
Fahey 2020 {published data only}
    1. Fahey CA, Njau PF, Katabaro E, Mfaume RS, Ulenga N, Mwenda N, et al. Financial incentives to promote retention in care and viral suppression in adults with HIV initiating antiretroviral therapy in Tanzania: a three-arm randomised controlled trial. Lancet HIV 2020;7(11):e762-71. - PMC - PubMed
Federal 2018 {published data only}
    1. Federal Ministry of Health of Nigeria. Impact evaluation of Nigeria state health investment project, 2018. documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/... (accessed prior to 4 April 2021).
Francetic 2019 {published data only}
    1. Francetic I, Tediosi F, Salari P, Savigny D. Going operational with health systems governance: supervision and incentives to health workers for increased quality of care in Tanzania. Health Policy and Planning 2019;34(Suppl 2):ii77-ii92. - PubMed
Gupta 2019a {published data only}
    1. Gupta N, Lavallee R, Ayles J. Gendered effects of pay for performance among family physicians for chronic disease care: an economic evaluation in a context of universal health coverage. Human Resources for Health 2019;17:40. - PMC - PubMed
Hoddinott 2010 {published data only}
    1. Hoddinott J. Nutrition and Conditional Cash Transfer Programs. In: Adato M, Hoddinott J, editors(s). Conditional cash transfers in Latin America. Baltimore, MD: Published for the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) by Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010:27-257.
Hussain 2019 {published data only}
    1. Hussain H, Mori AT, Khan AJ, Khowaja S, Creswel J, Tylleskar T, et al. The cost-effectiveness of incentive-based active case finding for tuberculosis (TB) control in the private sector Karachi, Pakistan. BMC Health Services Research 2019;19:1. - PMC - PubMed
Janssen 2015 {published data only}
    1. Janssen W, Ngirabega J de D, Matungwa M, Bastelaere S van. Improving quality through performance-based financing in district hospitals in Rwanda between 2006 and 2010: a 5-year experience. Tropical Doctor 2015;45(1):27-35. - PubMed
Janus 2011 {published data only}
    1. Janus K. Pay-for-performance does not always "pay". Eurohealth 2011;17(4):31-4.
Kanmiki 2018 {published data only}
    1. Kanmiki EW, Bempah BO, Awoonor-Williams JK, Bawah AA, d'Almeida SA, Kassak KM. An assessment of a performance-based management agreement initiative in Ghana's health service. BMC Health Services Research 2018;18:995. - PMC - PubMed
Karim 2015 {published data only}
    1. Karim QA, Leask K, Kharsany A, Humphries H, Ntombela F, Samsunder N, et al. Impact of conditional cash incentives on HSV-2 and HIV prevention in rural South African high school students: Results of the CAPRISA 007 cluster randomized controlled trial. Journal of the International AIDS Society 2015;18:43-4.
Kipp 2000 {published data only}
    1. Kipp W. Cost-Sharing in Kabarole District, Uganda: Incentive Payments to Health Staff Most Likely Explanation for a Low Impact of User Fees on Utilization Frequency of Health Services. In: Publications I: The 7th International Conference on System Science in Health Care, 29 May-2 June 2000, Budapest, Hungary. 2000:60-4.
Kitui 2017 {published data only}
    1. Kitui JE, Dutton V, Bester D, Ndirangu R, Wangai S, Ngugi S. Traditional Birth Attendant reorientation and Motherpacks incentive's effect on health facility delivery uptake in Narok County, Kenya: An impact analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2017;17(1):125. - PMC - PubMed
Korachais 2020 {published data only}
    1. Korachais C, Nkurunziza S, Nimpagaritse M, Meessen B. Impact of the extension of a performance-based financing scheme to nutrition services in Burundi on malnutrition prevention and management among children below five: a cluster-randomized control trial. PloS One 2020;15(9):e0239036. - PMC - PubMed
Kraft 2008 {published data only}
    1. Kraft AD, Capuno JJ, Quimbo SA, Tan CAR Jr. Information, Incentives and Practice Patterns: The Case of TB DOTS Services and Private Physicians in the Philippines. Singapore Economic Review 2008;53(1):43-56.
Kuunibe 2020a {published data only}
    1. Kuunibe N, Lohmann J, Hillebrecht M, Nguyen HT, Tougri G, Allegri M. What happens when performance-based financing meets free healthcare? Evidence from an interrupted time-series analysis. Health Policy and Planning 2020;35(8):906-17. - PubMed
Lazarevik 2013 {published data only}
    1. Lazarevik V, Kasapinov B. Pay-for-performance in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: between a good title and a bad reform. Eurohealth 2013;19(1):29-32.
Lohmann 2018 {published data only}
    1. Lohmann J, Muula AS, Houlfort N, De Allegri, M. How does performance-based financing affect health workers' intrinsic motivation? A self-determination theory-based mixed-methods study in Malawi. Social Science and Medicine 2018;208:1-8. - PubMed
Luo 2011 {published data only}
    1. Luo R, Jin X, Yang Q. Research on performance evaluation criteria for local MCH services in ethnic minority areas. Maternal and Child Health Care of China 2011;26(33):5125-27.
Manga 2018 {published data only}
    1. Manga LJ, Fouda AA, Mbida L, Mvogo CE. Performance based financing and job satisfaction in a semiurban health district in Cameroon. Journal of Public Health in Africa 2018;9(1):760. - PMC - PubMed
Menya 2013 {published data only}
    1. Menya D, Logedi J, Wafula R, Sang E, Manji I, Armstrong J, Neelon B, O'Meara WP. Cluster randomized trial of an innovative pay-for performance (P4P) strategy to improve diagnosis and treatment of malaria in western Kenya. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2013;89(5 suppl. 1):168-9.
Morris 2010 {published data only}
    1. Morris SS. Conditional Cash Transfer Programs and Health. In: Adato M, Hoddinott J, editors(s). Conditional cash transfers in Latin America. Baltimore, MD: The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) by Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010:212-230.
Mothusi 2009 {published data only}
    1. Mothusi B. Managing performance improvement in government: lessons of the Botswana experience. African Journal of Public Administration and Management 2009;20(2):23-36.
Mukwenha 2020 {published data only}
    1. Mukwenha S, Dzinamarira T, Mugurungi O, Musuka G. Maintaining robust HIV and tuberculosis services in the COVID-19 era: a public health dilemma in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 2020;100:394-5. - PMC - PubMed
Mwase 2020 {published data only}
    1. Mwase T, Lohmann J, Hamadou S, Brenner S, Somda SM, Hien H, et al. Can combining performance-based financing with equity measures result in greater equity in utilization of maternal care services? Evidence from Burkina Faso. International Journal of Health Policy and Management 2020 Jul 27 [Epub ahead of print]. [DOI: 10.34172/ijhpm.2020.121] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Nguyen 2017 {published data only}
    1. Nguyen HT, Bales S, Wagstaff A, Dao H. Getting incentives right? The impact of hospital capitation payment in Vietnam. Health Economics 2017;26(2):263-72. - PubMed
Nimpagaritse 2016 {published data only}
    1. Nimpagaritse M, Korachais C, Roberfroid D, Kolsteren P, El Idrissi MD, Meessen B. Measuring and understanding the effects of a performance based financing scheme applied to nutrition services in Burundi – a mixed method impact evaluation design. International Journal for Equity in Health 2016;15:93. - PMC - PubMed
Oyebola 2014 {published data only}
    1. Oyebola BC, Muhammad F, Otunomeruke A, Galadima A. Effect of performance-based incentives for traditional birth attendants on access to maternal and newborn health-care facilities in Gombe State, Nigeria: a pilot study. New Voices in Global Health 2014;384(Suppl. 1):S10.
Peabody 2011b {published data only}
    1. Peabody J, Shimkhada R, Quimbo S, Florentino J, Bacate M, McCulloch CE, et al. Financial incentives and measurement improved physicians' quality of care in the Philippines. Health Affairs 2011;30(4):773-81. - PubMed
Powell‐Jackson 2009 {published data only}
    1. Powell-Jackson T, Neupane BD, Tiwari S, Tumbahangphe K, Manandhar D, Costello AM. The impact of Nepal's national incentive programme to promote safe delivery in the district of Makwanpur. Advances in Health Economics & Health Services Research 2009;21:221-49. - PubMed
Rai 2015 {published data only}
    1. Rai NA. Attending to Traditional Birth Attendants: Incentives and Responses in Western Kenya. Georgetown University.
Rajkotia 2017 {published data only}
    1. Rajkotia Y, Zang O, Nguimkeu P, Gergen J, Djurovic I, Vaz P, et al. The effect of a performance-based financing program on HIV and maternal/child health services in Mozambique – an impact evaluation. Health Policy and Planning 2017;32(10):1386-96. - PMC - PubMed
Rwiyereka 2014 {published data only}
    1. Rwiyereka AK. Making money work for mothers: A quantitative and qualitative assessment of the impact of novel health financing policies on maternal health services in Rwanda. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2014;74:no pagination.
Saddi 2018 {published data only}
    1. Saddi FC, Peckham S. Brazilian Payment for Performance (PMAQ) Seen From a Global Health and Public Policy Perspective: What Does It Mean for Research and Policy? Journal of Ambulatory Care Management 2018;41(1):25-33. - PubMed
Sahadevan 1992 {published data only}
    1. Sahadevan KG. India's balance of payments performance: the decade 1980 - 81 [to] 1990 - 91. Finance India 1992:757-772.
Sahel 2015 {published data only}
    1. Sahel A, DeBrouwere V, Dujardin B, Kegels G, Belkaab N, Alaoui Belghiti A. Implementing a nationwide quality improvement approach in health services. Leadership in Health Services 2015;28(1):24-34. - PubMed
Salehi 2020 {published data only}
    1. Salehi AS, Borghi J, Blanchet K, Vassall A. The cost-effectiveness of using performance-based financing to deliver the basic package of health services in Afghanistan. BMJ Global Health 2020;5:9. - PMC - PubMed
Saran 2020 {published data only}
    1. Saran I, Winn L, Kipkoech Kirui J, Menya D, Prudhomme O'Meara W. The relative importance of material and non-material incentives for community health workers: evidence from a discrete choice experiment in Western Kenya. Social Science & Medicine 2020;246:112726. - PubMed
Sato 2020a {published data only}
    1. Sato R, Belel A. The effect of performance-based financing on child vaccinations in northern Nigeria. Vaccine 2020;38(9):2209-15. - PubMed
Sato 2020b {published data only}
    1. Sato R, Belel A. Effect of performance-based financing on health service delivery: a case study from Adamawa state, Nigeria. International Health 2020;13(2):122-9. - PMC - PubMed
Scheffler 2012 {published data only}
    1. Scheffler RM. The Global Shortage of Health Workers and Pay for Performance. In: Rosen B, Israeli A, Shortell S, editors(s). Accountability and responsibility in health care: issues in addressing an emerging global challenge. World Scientific, 2012.
Shapira 2018 {published data only}
    1. Shapira G, Kalisa I, Condo J, Humuza J, Mugeni C, Nkunda D, et al. Going beyond incentivizing formal health providers: evidence from the Rwanda Community Performance-Based Financing program. Health Economics 2018;27(12):2087-106. - PubMed
Shei 2012 {published data only}
    1. Shei Amie C-C. The health impacts of public programs for the poor in Brazil and the United States. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2012;73(4-B):2158.
Sherry 2012 {published data only}
    1. Sherry TB, Bauhoff S, Mohanan M. Paying for Performance When Health Care Production is Multi-Dimensional: The Impact of Rwanda's National Program on Rewarded Services, Multitasking and Health Outcome. Working Papers 12-19, Duke University, Department of Economics 2012.
Sherry 2013 {published data only}
    1. Maternal Health and Child Development Programs in the United States and Rwanda: An Evaluation of Policies to Improve Quality and Efficiency. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University 2012.
Sieleunou 2020 {published data only}
    1. Sieleunou I, De Allegri M, Roland Enok Bonong P, Ouedraogo S, Ridde V. Does performance-based financing curb stock-outs of essential medicines? Results from a randomised controlled trial in Cameroon. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2020;25(8):944-61. - PubMed
Singh 2020b {published data only}
    1. Singh P, Masters WA. Performance bonuses in the public sector: winner-take-all prizes versus proportional payments to reduce child malnutrition in India. Journal of Development Economics 2020;146:102295. - PMC - PubMed
Smith 2020 {published data only}
    1. Smith MK, Shen H, Huang S, Zheng H, Yang B, Wiesen C, et al. Detection-based monetary incentives to improve syphilis screening uptake: results of a pilot intervention in a high transmission setting in southern China. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2020;47(3):187-91. - PubMed
Sosa‐Rubi 2015 {published data only}
    1. Sosa-Rubi S, Galarraga O, Operario D, Saavedra B, Mayer K, Allain NG, et al. Impact of conditional economic incentives to reduce risky behaviours among high-risk men who have sex with men in a three-year randomized pilot study. Journal of the International AIDS Society 2015;18:12.
Tawfiq 2018 {published data only}
    1. Tawfiq E, Desai J, Hyslop D. Effects of results-based financing of maternal and child health services on patient satisfaction in Afghanistan. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy 2018;24(1):4-10. - PubMed
Tawfiq 2019 {published data only}
    1. Tawfiq E, Desai J, Hyslop D. Effects of results-based financing of maternal and child health services on patient satisfaction in Afghanistan. Journal of Health Services and Research Policy 2019;24(1):4-10. - PubMed
Thi 2018 {published data only}
    1. Thi H, Nguyen H. Improving grassroots service delivery using results based financing in Viet, 2018. www.rbfhealth.org/resource/improving-grassroots-service-delivery-using-r... (accessed prior to 4 April 2021).
Trap 2011 {published data only}
    1. Trap R, Trap B, Hansen TW, Hansen EH. Performance based reward for immunization: Experiences from GAVI. Southern Med Review 2011;4(1):40-7.
Turcotte‐Tremblay 2018 {published data only}
    1. Turcotte-Tremblay AM, De Allegri M, Gali-Gali IA, Ridde V. The unintended consequences of combining equity measures with performance-based financing in Burkina Faso. International Journal for Equity in Health 2018;17:109. - PMC - PubMed
Turcotte‐Tremblay 2020 {published data only}
    1. Turcotte-Tremblay AM, Gali Gali IA, Ridde V. An exploration of the unintended consequences of performance-based financing in 6 primary healthcare facilities in Burkina Faso. International Journal of Health Policy and Management 2020 Jun 23 [Epub ahead of print]. [DOI: 10.34172/ijhpm.2020.83] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ustuner 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ustuner Y, Idrisoglu FK. Neo-Taylorist Practices and Ethics in Public Administration: Pay for Performance in Turkish Public Health Service [Kamu calisma etigi ve neo-taylorist uygulamalar: Turk kamu saglik hizmetinde performansa dayali ucretlendirme ornegi]. Middle East Technical University Studies in Development 2014;41(2):177-200.
Vian 2010 {published data only}
    1. Vian, T. Good governance and performance-based budgeting: Factors affecting reform progress in Lesotho hospitals. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences 2010;71:1111.
Wagner 2018b {published data only}
    1. Wagner AD, Njuguna IN, Neary J, Omondi VO, Otieno VA, Babigumira J, et al. Financial incentives to increase pediatric HIV testing: : study protocol for a randomised controlled trial in Kenya. BMJ Open 2018;8:e024310. - PMC - PubMed
Watson‐Grant 2015 {published data only}
    1. Watson-Grant, S. Measuring country ownership and its relationship to health outcomes: The case of liberia. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2015;75:No Pagination.
Wise 2017 {published data only}
    1. Wise A, Kaddu P. Micro-entrepreneur based community health delivery program demonstrates significant reduction in under-five mortality in Uganda at less than $2 per capita. BMC Proceedings 2017;11(10):https://doi.org/10.1186/s12919-017-0074-9.
Wright 2018 {published data only}
    1. Wright J, Eichler R. A review of initiatives that link provider payment with quality measurement of maternal health services in low- and middle-income countries. Health Systems and Reform 2018;4(2):77-92.
Yingxia 2017 {published data only}
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The Gambia {published data only}
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Additional references

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References to other published versions of this review

Witter 2009b
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Witter 2012
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