Odor-active volatile compounds in preterm breastmilk

Abstract

Background: Volatile compounds in breastmilk (BM) likely influence flavor learning and, through the cephalic phase response, metabolism, and digestion. Little is known about the volatile compounds present in preterm BM. We investigated whether maternal or infant characteristics are associated with the profile of volatile compounds in preterm BM.

Methods: Using solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, we analyzed volatile compounds in 400 BM samples collected from 170 mothers of preterm infants.

Results: Forty volatile compounds were detected, mostly fatty acids and their esters (FA and FAe), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), aldehydes, terpenoids, alcohols, and ketones. The relative concentration of most FA and FAe increased with advancing lactation and were lower in BM of most socially deprived mothers and those with gestational diabetes (p < 0.05), but medium-chain FAs were higher in colostrum compared to transitional BM (p < 0.001). Infant sex, gestational age, and size at birth were not associated with the profile of volatile compounds in preterm BM.

Conclusions: Sensory-active volatile FA and FAe are the major contributors to the smell of preterm BM. The associations between lactation stage, maternal characteristics, and volatile compounds, and whether differences in volatile compounds may affect feeding behavior or metabolism, requires further research.

Impact: Sensory-active volatile FAs are major contributors to the smell of preterm BM and are influenced by the lactation stage and maternal characteristics. Longitudinal analysis of volatile compounds in preterm BM found that FAs increased with advancing lactation. Colostrum had a higher concentration of medium-chain FAs compared to transitional BM and the concentration of these is associated with socioeconomic status, gestational diabetes, and ethnicity.

Fig. 1. Study flowchart.

Numbers do not add up as some mothers provided >1 sample and some mothers gave birth to multiples (twins and triplets). BM breastmilk.

Fig. 2. Relative peak area of volatile compounds in preterm breastmilk by infant age at the time of collection.

Note the logarithmic scale of the y-axis. Boxes represent the median and interquartile range, whiskers represent highest and lowest peak area detected, and dots represent samples. Groups are not shown when the compound was not detected. Significance level is taken as p value <0.05, adjusted for comparison (Bonferroni). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. CA corrected age.

Fig. 3. Relative concentration of volatile compounds in preterm breastmilk by maternal ethnicity and gestational diabetes.

(a) Maternal ethnicity; (b) gestational diabetes. Note the logarithmic scale of the y-axis. Boxes represent the median and interquartile range, whiskers represent highest and lowest peak area detected, and dots represent samples. Groups not shown when compound was not detected. Significance level is taken as p value <0.05, adjusted for comparison (Bonferroni). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.

Fig. 4. Relative concentration of volatile compounds in preterm breastmilk by New Zealand Deprivation Index quintiles (1, low; 5, high).

Note the logarithmic scale of the y-axis. Boxes represent the median and interquartile range, whiskers represent highest and lowest peak area detected, and dots represent samples. Groups are not shown when the compound was not detected. Significance level is taken as p value <0.05, adjusted for comparison (Bonferroni). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. Q quintile.