Understanding ADHD: Toward an Innovative Therapeutic Intervention

Abstract

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a pervasive condition affecting persons across all age groups, although it is primarily diagnosed in children. This neurological condition affects behavior, learning, and social adjustment and requires specific symptomatic criteria to be fulfilled for diagnosis. ADHD may be treated with a combination of psychological or psychiatric therapeutic interventions, but it often goes unattended. People with ADHD face societal bias challenges that impact how they manage the disorder and how they view themselves. This paper summarizes the present state of understanding of this disorder, with particular attention to early diagnosis and innovative therapeutic intervention. Contemporary understanding of the mind-brain duality allows for innovative therapeutic interventions based on neurological stimulation. This paper introduces the concept of neurostimulation as a therapeutic intervention for ADHD and poses the question of the relationship between patient adherence to self-administered therapy and the aesthetic design features of the neurostimulation device. By fabricating devices that go beyond safety and efficacy to embrace the aesthetic preferences of the patient, it is proposed that there will be improvements in patient adherence to a device intended to address ADHD.

Keywords: ADHD; adherence; design; neurostimulation; therapy.

Figure 1

The distribution of mental health comorbidities with an ADHD diagnosis, evidence for a syndromic spectrum of diseases [4,5].

Figure 2

The weighted prevalence estimate distribution of parent-reported ADHD diagnosis by age and gender [5].

Figure 3

Patterns of transcranial electrical stimulation (tES). (A) Pulse waveforms of rectangular waves. (B) Pulse waveform applied as a burst. (C) Pulse waveforms of increasing frequencies and separated by periods of non-stimulation (ON/OFF). Pulse waveforms of increasing frequencies and separated by periods of non-stimulation (burst). (D) Variations in waveforms specified by stimulation parameters, including frequency, pulse shape, pulse width, pulse amplitude, pulse interphase delay, and the pulse repetition frequency. (i) Direct current stimulation (tDCS) and square wave stimulation; (ii) sinusoidal monophasic and biphasic stimulation at a single frequency (tSS); (iii) random noise stimulation (tRNS); and amplitude-modulated sinewave [92].

Figure 4

Neurostimulation as exemplified by electrical stimulation of the trigeminal nerve on the temple region and on the forehead region. (Adapted from [96]).