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Review
. 2021 May 31;10(6):881.
doi: 10.3390/antiox10060881.

The 15-Months Clinical Experience of SARS-CoV-2: A Literature Review of Therapies and Adjuvants

Alessio Danilo Inchingolo  1 , Gianna Dipalma  1 , Angelo Michele Inchingolo  1 , Giuseppina Malcangi  1 , Luigi Santacroce  1 , Maria Teresa D'Oria  1   2 , Ciro Gargiulo Isacco  1   3   4 , Ioana Roxana Bordea  5 , Sebastian Candrea  5   6 , Antonio Scarano  7 , Benedetta Morandi  8   9 , Massimo Del Fabbro  8   9 , Marco Farronato  8   10 , Gianluca Martino Tartaglia  8   10 , Mario Giosuè Balzanelli  11 , Andrea Ballini  12   13 , Ludovica Nucci  14 , Felice Lorusso  7 , Silvio Taschieri  8   9   15 , Francesco Inchingolo  1
Affiliations
Review

The 15-Months Clinical Experience of SARS-CoV-2: A Literature Review of Therapies and Adjuvants

Alessio Danilo Inchingolo et al. Antioxidants (Basel). .

Abstract

Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the virus responsible for the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) that emerged in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, and rapidly spread worldwide, with a daily increase in confirmed cases and infection-related deaths. The World Health Organization declared a pandemic on the 11th of March 2020. COVID-19 presents flu-like symptoms that become severe in high-risk medically compromised subjects. The aim of this study was to perform an updated overview of the treatments and adjuvant protocols for COVID-19.

Methods: A systematic literature search of databases was performed (MEDLINE PubMed, Google Scholar, UpToDate, Embase, and Web of Science) using the keywords: "COVID-19", "2019-nCoV", "coronavirus" and "SARS-CoV-2" (date range: 1 January 2019 to 31st October 2020), focused on clinical features and treatments.

Results: The main treatments retrieved were antivirals, antimalarials, convalescent plasma, immunomodulators, corticosteroids, anticoagulants, and mesenchymal stem cells. Most of the described treatments may provide benefits to COVID-19 subjects, but no one protocol has definitively proven its efficacy.

Conclusions: While many efforts are being spent worldwide in research aimed at identifying early diagnostic methods and evidence-based effective treatments, mass vaccination is thought to be the best option against this disease in the near future.

Keywords: SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19); anticoagulants; antimalarials; antioxidants; antivirals; autologous stem cells; corticosteroids; immunomodulators; immunotherapy; vaccines.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
PRISMA flowchart summary of the manuscripts and scientific contribution selection [50].
Figure 2
Figure 2
Summary of the therapeutic drug categories proposed against COVID-19.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Details of polyclonal/monoclonal characteristics and administration protocols.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Humoral response of the antigen and human cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Details of the SARS-CoV-2 S Spike protein (S) binding with ACE2 human receptors.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Monoclonal Antibody (MIPs) mechanisms against the SARS-CoV-2 S protein binding with the host cells.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Antibody (MIPs) characteristics and mechanisms of antigen binding.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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