Nanobioengineered Sensing Technologies Based on Cellulose Matrices for Detection of Small Molecules, Macromolecules, and Cells

Abstract

Recent advancement has been accomplished in the field of biosensors through the modification of cellulose as a nano-engineered matrix material. To date, various techniques have been reported to develop cellulose-based matrices for fabricating different types of biosensors. Trends of involving cellulosic materials in paper-based multiplexing devices and microfluidic analytical technologies have increased because of their disposable, portable, biodegradable properties and cost-effectiveness. Cellulose also has potential in the development of cytosensors because of its various unique properties including biocompatibility. Such cellulose-based sensing devices are also being commercialized for various biomedical diagnostics in recent years and have also been considered as a method of choice in clinical laboratories and personalized diagnosis. In this paper, we have discussed the engineering aspects of cellulose-based sensors that have been reported where such matrices have been used to develop various analytical modules for the detection of small molecules, metal ions, macromolecules, and cells present in a diverse range of samples. Additionally, the developed cellulose-based biosensors and related analytical devices have been comprehensively described in tables with details of the sensing molecule, readout system, sensor configuration, response time, real sample, and their analytical performances.

Keywords: biosensors; cellulose; cytosensing; human health; matrix design; nanobioengineering.

Figure 1

The number of articles published in consequent years in the online database “Scopus” using the keyword “cellulose-based biosensors”.

Figure 2

Biosensors for detection of small-molecule and metal ion. (A) Pictorial representation of poly pyrrole-cellulose nanocrystal (PPy-CNC)-based biosensor for the analysis of glucose and response recorded with a DPV (reproduced with permission from [68]). (B) Representation of the reaction mechanism of cellulose nanocrystal/magnetite glucose biosensor (Reproduced with permission from [55]). (C) Representation of cellulose–SnO₂ nanocomposite-based biosensor for the detection of glucose molecule (reproduced with permission from [54]). (D) Pictorial representation of the development of CTAB-NCC/MPA-QDs/Tyr sensor through immobilization of CTAB-NCC/QDs on SPCE (screen-printed carbon electrode) and further with Tyr enzyme for the detection of phenol and response evaluated using DPV (reproduced with permission from [58]). (E) Fabrication scheme of DAC-PDH-based colorimetric sensor through chemical alteration and discriminatory identification of Cu²⁺ by DAC-PDH within 30 s (reproduced with permission from [69]). (F) Preparation of DAC-Tu selective colorimetric sensor and the identification of Ag⁺ from aqueous solutions according to color change based on the varying concentrations of Ag+ (reproduced with permission from [70]).

Figure 3

Biosensors for detection of macromolecules. (A) Fabrication of DNA sensor by immobilization of acpc PNA (D-prolyl-2-aminocyclopentanecarboxylic acid—peptide nucleic acid) through covalent bonding on the cellulose paper and cationic dye Azure A is used for signal detection (reproduced with permission from [83]). (B) Surface tethering of the cellulose-based sensor for the identification of Esterase enzyme by using the flu orogen (reproduced with permission from [90]). (C) Illustration of bilirubin sensor using photoluminescent carbon dot sensing probes (reproduced with permission from [88]). (D) Fabrication pattern of the paper-based biosensor for determination of glycoprotein (reproduced with permission from [87]). (E) Schematic representation of a fabrication and detection method of ALP biosensor (reproduced with permission from [50]).

Figure 4

Biosensors for detection of cells. (A) Fabrication scheme of the sensor for identification of S. aureus cells using (B,C) matrix (reproduced with permission from [101]). (B) Pictorial depiction of paper-based ECL biosensor for the sensing of HL-60 cancer cells (reproduced with permission from [116]). (C) Representation of steps involved in electrode surface modification and the bacterial detection by the SPCE (Reproduced with permission from [117]).