Zoonotic Malaria: Non- Laverania Plasmodium Biology and Invasion Mechanisms

Abstract

Malaria, which is caused by Plasmodium parasites through Anopheles mosquito transmission, remains one of the most life-threatening diseases affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide every year. Plasmodium vivax, which accounts for the majority of cases of recurring malaria caused by the Plasmodium (non-Laverania) subgenus, is an ancient and continuing zoonosis originating from monkey hosts probably outside Africa. The emergence of other zoonotic malarias (P. knowlesi, P. cynomolgi, and P. simium) further highlights the seriousness of the disease. The severity of this epidemic disease is dependent on many factors, including the parasite characteristics, host-parasite interactions, and the pathology of the infection. Successful infection depends on the ability of the parasite to invade the host; however, little is known about the parasite invasion biology and mechanisms. The lack of this information adds to the challenges to malaria control and elimination, hence enhancing the potential for continuation of this zoonosis. Here, we review the literature describing the characteristics, distribution, and genome details of the parasites, as well as host specificity, host-parasite interactions, and parasite pathology. This information will provide the basis of a greater understanding of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of malaria to support future development of strategies for the control and prevention of this zoonotic infection.

Keywords: genome; host species; invasion mechanism; pathology; zoonotic malaria.

Figure 1

Characteristics of non-Laverania Plasmodium species in the erythrocytic cycle.

Figure 2

World map showing the distribution of the main non-Laverania human-infecting Plasmodium species.

Figure 3

Phylogenetic tree of the Plasmodium species. Relationship of non-Laverania Plasmodium species based on mitochondrial cox3, cox1, and cytb sequences. Created using MegaX (Table S1).

Figure 4

Non-Laverania Plasmodium species ligands with their respective erythrocyte receptors during invasion in erythrocytic stage. (F) = full gene length; (P) = pseudogene; (n) = number of genes; p = partial genes; fam = gene family. Created with BioRender.com.