Early evidence for beer drinking in a 9000-year-old platform mound in southern China

Abstract

Alcoholic beverages played an essential role in rituals in ancient societies. Here we report the first evidence for beer drinking in the context of burial ritual in early Holocene southern China. Recent archaeological investigations at Qiaotou (9,000-8,700 cal. BP) have revealed a platform mound containing human burials and high concentrations of painted pottery, encircled by a human-made ditch. By applying microfossil (starch, phytolith, and fungi) residue analysis on the pottery vessels, we found that some of the pots held beer made of rice (Oryza sp.), Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), and USOs. We also discovered the earliest evidence for using mold saccharification-fermentation starter in beer making, predating written records by 8,000 years. The beer at Qiaotou was likely served in rituals to commemorate the burial of the dead. Ritualized drinking probably played an integrative role in maintaining social relationships, paving the way for the rise of complex farming societies four millennia later.

Fig 1. Archaeological information of the Qiaotou site.

(a) Location of Qiaotou, base map modified from USGS National Map Viewer (http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/); (b) Cultural history and rice domestication in the Lower Yangtze Valley; (c) Calibrated 2σ probability distribution of AMS Radiocarbon dates on wood charcoal from Qiaotou (Peking University AMS Laboratory, calibrated by Oxcal v 4.42).

Fig 2. Archaeological features from Qiaotou platform mound.

(a) Human burial 1(M44);b, The locations of human burials and associated pottery pits; (c) and (d) Painted pottery vessels suitable for serving foods and drinks; (e) A bird view photograph showing the location of the platform in relation to the ditch; (f) Pit H98 during excavation, which contained 50 complete pots; (g) A group of postholes from the eastern side of the platform; (h) and (i) Postholes with stone pillar bases; (j) The ditch (left) and platform (right) at Qiaotou.

Fig 3. Representative pottery types recovered from Qiaotou.

(a) and (b) Long-necked hu vessel; (c) Bowl; (d) Jar; (e) A selection of painted patterns from Qiaotou pottery.

Fig 4. Starch granules from Qiaotou pots compared with rice brewing experiment samples.

Qiaotou samples: (a) Qiaotou Type I starch (rice), compared with (b); (c) and (e) Compound rice starch granules showing central pitting (pointed by red arrows) and gelatinization (starch damage type 1), compared with (d) and (f); (g) Slightly gelatinized rice granules without pitting (starch damage type 2), compared with (h); (i) A gelatinized starch granule from Qiaotou, possibly from a USO (starch damage type 2); (j) A gelatinized starch granule from Qiaotou (starch damage type 2). Rice fermentation experiment samples: (b) A cluster of unmodified rice (Oryza sativa) starch granules; (c) and (f) Compound rice starch granules showing central pitting (pointed by red arrows) and gelatinization, a result of the combined effects of heating and enzymatic hydrolysis during the fermentation process; (h) Slightly gelatinized rice starch granules, showing faint extinction crosses under polarized light. Starch granules in c, e, f, h, i, and j are stained with Congo Red. They are stained red under in bright field light, with an orange-red glow in polarized light, indicating gelatinization. Each starch granule/compound is shown in bright field and polarized views (scale bars: 20 μm).

Fig 5. Starch remains from Qiaotou pottery compared with modern references.

(a) Qiaotou Type II starch (Job’s tears); (b) Job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi, from Yunnan); (c) and (d) Qiaotou Type III starch (Unidentified USOs); (e) Qiaotou Type IV starch (acorn); (f) Acorn (Quercus fabri, from Zhejiang). Each starch granule/compound is shown in bright field and polarized views.

Fig 6. Molds and yeast cells from Qiaotou pottery compared with modern references.

Qiaotou samples: (a) Vesicle/sporangia without phialides/spores attached, compared with Aspergillus oryzae in (f); (b) Black sporangia connecting to sporangiophores, compared with Rhizopus in (g); (c) Rhizopus sporangiophore, compared with (h); (d) Vesicle/sporangia without phialides/spores attached, compared with Aspergillus oryzae in (i); (e) Yeast cells in budding process, compared with (j); Modern samples: (f) A. oryzae vesicle; (g) Rhizopus rhizoids, sporangiophore, sporangia and sporangiospores; (h) Rhizopus rhizoids; (i) A. oryzae mycelium; (j) Cultured, domesticated S. cerevisiae yeast in various budding forms (scale bars: 20 μm).

Fig 7. Phytolith remains from Qiaotou pottery.

(a) Double peak (Oryza, rice husk); (b) elongate skeletons (Poaceae); (c) Oryza-type bulliform (Oryza, rice leaf/stem); (d) Parallel scooped bilobate (Ehrhartoideae); (f) Cross (cf. Job’s tears); (g) Rondel (Poaceae); (h) Articulated quadrilobate (Panicoideae) (i) Crenate elongate skeleton (cf. Poaceae husk).

Fig 8. Quantitative summary of Qiaotou microfossil residue and control samples.

(a) Comparison of microfossil quantities from Qiaotou residue and control samples; (b) Summary of microfossil residues from Qiaotou pottery.

Fig 9. Beer-related microfossil remains.

(a) Rice starch granules; (b) A starch granule from an unidentified USO; (c) A starch granule from Job’s tears, showing a characteristic Z-shaped arm; (d) A double-peak phytolith from rice husk; (e) Yeast cells in budding process; (f) and (g) vesicle/sporangia without phialides/spores attached, compared with Aspergillus oryzae in Fig 6; (h) Black sporangia connecting to sporangiophores, compared with Rhizopus in Fig 6 (scale bars: 20 μm).