Antimicrobial surfaces: a review of synthetic approaches, applicability and outlook

Abstract

The rapid spread of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses can be extremely detrimental and can lead to seasonal epidemics or even pandemic situations. In addition, these microorganisms may bring about fouling of food and essential materials resulting in substantial economic losses. Typically, the microorganisms get transmitted by their attachment and growth on various household and high contact surfaces such as doors, switches, currency. To prevent the rapid spread of microorganisms, it is essential to understand the interaction between various microbes and surfaces which result in their attachment and growth. Such understanding is crucial in the development of antimicrobial surfaces. Here, we have reviewed different approaches to make antimicrobial surfaces and correlated surface properties with antimicrobial activities. This review concentrates on physical and chemical modification of the surfaces to modulate wettability, surface topography, and surface charge to inhibit microbial adhesion, growth, and proliferation. Based on these aspects, antimicrobial surfaces are classified into patterned surfaces, functionalized surfaces, superwettable surfaces, and smart surfaces. We have critically discussed the important findings from systems of developing antimicrobial surfaces along with the limitations of the current research and the gap that needs to be bridged before these approaches are put into practice.

Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10853-021-06404-0.

Figure 1

Schematic diagram of various types of microorganisms a Bacteria b Fungus c Virus

Figure 2

Schematic diagram of different antimicrobial surfaces

Figure 3

a SEM image of A. fumigatus and F. oxysporum on flat and nanopillared surfaces b Antifungal activity of A. fumigatus and F. oxysporum at different time intervals. Adapted with permission from Ref. [51] Copyright (2019)American Chemical Society

Figure 4

Antibacterial mechanism of cicada wing surface. Adapted with permission from Ref. [46] Copyright (2013) Springer

Figure 5

Antibacterial mechanism of patterned micro-nanopillar surface. Adapted with permission from Ref. [49] Copyright (2019) KeAi

Figure 6

In vivo photothermal antibacterial activity of Ag@SnS₂ material. Adapted with permission from Ref. [71] Copyright (2021) Royal Society of Chemistry

Figure 7

Mechanism of bacterial adhesion resistance on a superhydrophobic surface. Adapted with permission from Ref. [86] Copyright (2012) Taylor & Francis

Figure 8

Schematic representation of superhydrophobic and antibacterial surface showing the bacterial repealing and simultaneous killing of bacteria. Adapted with permission from Ref. [93] Copyright (2021) Wiley–VCH

Figure 9

The schematic diagram of a the antibacterial and b antifungal mechanism of superhydrophilic surface. Adapted with permission from Ref. [98] Copyright (2019) Elsevier

Figure 10

Thermoresponsive switchable antibacterial surface using lysozyme and PNIPAAm. Adapted with permission from Ref. [109] Copyright (2014) Royal Society of Chemistry

Figure 11

pH-responsive switchable antibacterial surface using AMP and PMAA. Adapted with permission from Ref. [111] Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society