Hyperkalemia with RAAS inhibition: Mechanism, clinical significance, and management

Abstract

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors are evidence-based treatments for a number of conditions including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and congestive heart failure. Among the most common adverse effects of RAAS inhibitors is hyperkalemia which results from either reduced secretion of aldosterone or increased resistance to aldosterone. Many of the conditions for which RAAS inhibitors are recommended further amplify the risk for hyperkalemia in and of themselves. RAAS inhibitor-related hyperkalemia is associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular events, hospitalizations, and death. Yet discontinuation of RAAS inhibitors for patients with chronic kidney disease and congestive heart failure is also associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular events, hospitalizations, and death. Therefore, clinicians are often left to struggle with the dilemma of the best management approach to RAAS inhibitor-related hyperkalemia. The ideal solution involves pharmacotherapies that are safe and effective in mitigating hyperkalemia and allow patients to continue to receive the beneficial effects from RAAS inhibitors. In this regard, modern pharmacologic agents such as patiromer and zirconium cyclosilicate are providing a mechanism whereby physicians are better equipped to maintain their patients on RAAS inhibitors.

Keywords: ACE inhibitors; Angiotensin receptor blockers; Hyperkalemia; Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists; Patiromer sorbitex calcium (PubChem CID: 86580497); RAAS inhibitors; Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system; Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (PubChem CID: 75905); Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (PubChem CID: 92042806).