Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2021 Aug 10;10(8):1009.
doi: 10.3390/pathogens10081009.

Zoonotic Blood-Borne Pathogens in Non-Human Primates in the Neotropical Region: A Systematic Review

Gabriel Carrillo-Bilbao  1   2   3 , Sarah Martin-Solano  3   4 , Claude Saegerman  1
Affiliations
Review

Zoonotic Blood-Borne Pathogens in Non-Human Primates in the Neotropical Region: A Systematic Review

Gabriel Carrillo-Bilbao et al. Pathogens. .

Abstract

Background: Understanding which non-human primates (NHPs) act as a wild reservoir for blood-borne pathogens will allow us to better understand the ecology of diseases and the role of NHPs in the emergence of human diseases in Ecuador, a small country in South America that lacks information on most of these pathogens. Methods and principal findings: A systematic review was carried out using PRISMA guidelines from 1927 until 2019 about blood-borne pathogens present in NHPs of the Neotropical region (i.e., South America and Middle America). Results: A total of 127 publications were found in several databases. We found in 25 genera (132 species) of NHPs a total of 56 blood-borne pathogens in 197 records where Protozoa has the highest number of records in neotropical NHPs (n = 128) compared to bacteria (n = 12) and viruses (n = 57). Plasmodium brasilianum and Trypanosoma cruzi are the most recorded protozoa in NHP. The neotropical primate genus with the highest number of blood-borne pathogens recorded is Alouatta sp. (n = 32). The use of non-invasive samples for neotropical NHPs remains poor in a group where several species are endangered or threatened. A combination of serological and molecular techniques is common when detecting blood-borne pathogens. Socioecological and ecological risk factors facilitate the transmission of these parasites. Finally, a large number of countries remain unsurveyed, such as Ecuador, which can be of public health importance. Conclusions and significance: NHPs are potential reservoirs of a large number of blood-borne pathogens. In Ecuador, research activities should be focused on bacteria and viruses, where there is a gap of information for neotropical NHPs, in order to implement surveillance programs with regular and effective monitoring protocols adapted to NHPs.

Keywords: Alouatta; Ecuador; Plasmodium; Trypanosoma; blood-borne pathogen; non-human primates; protozoa; yellow fever.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Flowchart (modified from PRISMA 2009) describing the literature search and study selection.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Kuiken T., Leighton F.A., Fouchier R.A., LeDuc J.W., Peiris J.S., Schudel A., Stöhr K., Osterhaus A.D.M.E. Public health: Pathogen surveillance in animals. Science. 2005;309:1680–1681. doi: 10.1126/science.1113310. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Jones K.E., Patel N.G., Levy M.A., Storeygard A., Balk D., Gittleman J.L. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature. 2008 doi: 10.1038/nature06536. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Daszak P., Cunningham A.A., Hyatt A.D. Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife-Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health. Science. 2000;287:443–449. doi: 10.1126/science.287.5452.443. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Gillespie T.R., Nunn C.L., Leendertz F.H. Integrative Approaches to the Study of Primate Infectious Disease: Implications for Biodiversity Conservation and Global Health. Yrbk. Phys. Anth. 2008;51:53–69. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20949. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Martin-Solano S., Carrillo-Bilbao G.A., Ramirez W., Celi-Erazo M., Huynen M.-C., Levecke B., Benitez W., Losson B. Gastrointestinal parasites in captive and free-ranging Cebus albifrons in the Western Amazon, Ecuador. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl. 2017;6:209–218. doi: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2017.06.004. - DOI - PMC - PubMed

LinkOut - more resources