Micro/nanotechnology-inspired rapid diagnosis of respiratory infectious diseases

Abstract

Humans have suffered from a variety of infectious diseases since a long time ago, and now a new infectious disease called COVID-19 is prevalent worldwide. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has led to research of the effective methods of diagnosing respiratory infectious diseases, which are important to reduce infection rate and help the spread of diseases be controlled. The onset of COVID-19 has led to the further development of existing diagnostic methods such as polymerase chain reaction, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Furthermore, this has contributed to the further development of micro/nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods, which have advantages of high-throughput testing, effectiveness in terms of cost and space, and portability compared to conventional diagnosis methods. Micro/nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods can be largely classified into (1) nanomaterials-based, (2) micromaterials-based, and (3) micro/nanodevice-based. This review paper describes how micro/nanotechnologies have been exploited to diagnose respiratory infectious diseases in each section. The research and development of micro/nanotechnology-based diagnostics should be further explored and advanced as new infectious diseases continue to emerge. Only a handful of micro/nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods has been commercialized so far and there still are opportunities to explore.

Keywords: Micro/nanodevices; Micro/nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods; Micromaterials; Nanomaterials; Respiratory infectious diseases.

Fig. 1

Schematic diagram of the operation procedure for the colorimetric diagnosis of DNA based on disulfide induced self-assembly: a Salt-induced aggregation of AuNPs in the absence of targets; b preventing AuNPs from salt-induced aggregation by disulfide induced self-assembly in the presence of targets. Reprinted with permission from [105]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society

Fig. 2

The schematic diagram for the selective and naked-eye diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 RNA based on designed ASO-capped AuNPs. Reprinted with permission from [108]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society

Fig. 3

Schematic representation for the FET sensor operation procedure for the diagnosis of COVID-19 based on graphene as a sensing material. SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody is conjugated onto the graphene sheet by 1-pyrenebutyric acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester, which is an interfacing molecule as a probe linker. Reprinted with permission from [113]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society

Fig. 4

Schematic illustration of sensor design: a Zr nanoparticles and reducing agent keep on the vial; b formation of Zr QDs; c antibody conjugated QDs; d the addition of antibody-conjugated MPNPs; e formation of nanostructured magnetoplasmonic-fluorescent by the addition of target, then separated (f); g dispersion of the nanohybrid-conjugated part and the optical properties measurement (h). Reprinted with permission from [116]

Fig. 5

Schematic illustration of the microelectrode-based impedance assay for diagnosis of avian influenza virus H5N1. (1) Bare microelectrode; (2) Immobilization of streptavidin on the surface of microelectrode; (3) Bounding of biotinylated H5N1 aptamers to the immobilized streptavidin on the microelectrode; (4) Blocking the electrode surface with the polyethylene glycol; (5) Bounding of H5N1 viruses to the aptamers; and (6) Bounding of the gold nanoparticles-based amplifiers to the captured H5N1 viruses. Reprinted with permission from [118]

Fig. 6

Schematic representation of the digital ELISA for diagnosis of H7N9 AIV based on bifunctional fluorescence magnetic nanospheres (bi-FMNs) integration with monolayer AuNPs modified microelectrode array: a Capture of Single Virus per bi-FMNs and Individual Separation of Target/bi-FMNs Complexes into microelectrode array; b Enzyme-Induced Metallization and Digital Analysis. Reprinted with permission from [119]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society

Fig. 7

Detailed illustration of the affinity assay for diagnosis of influenza based on graphene oxide (GO). The interaction of Pyrenebutyric acid-N-hydrosuccinimide ester (PANHS) crosslinker with the GO allows for subsequent binding of influenza protein and influenza protein antibody for detection. Reprinted with permission from [125]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society

Fig. 8

(I) Synthetic schematic for the preparation of Au nanoparticle-decorated CNT and (II) Schematic illustration for diagnosis process of influenza virus by using PAFI [128]

Fig. 9

a Procedure for the preparation of Ab-AuNPs–GO conjugates; b A schematic illustration of the colorimetric immunoassay for diagnosis of RSV based on Hg²⁺-stimulated peroxidase-like activity of AuNPs–GO hybrids. Reprinted with permission from [130]. Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society

Fig. 10

Schematic representation of AuNRs and SiQDs based-fluorescent analysis method for the detection of secreted antigen from MTB based on sandwich assay via antigen–antibody interaction. Reprinted with permission from [142]

Fig. 11

Schematic representation and preparation procedure of the multiplexed electrochemiluminescence immunosensor based on carbon QDs and CdS QDs for simultaneous detection of IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2. Reprinted with permission from [143]

Fig. 12

a Schematic structure of the CNT FET device. b Antigen–antibody interaction of Candida albicans with a SWCNT functionalised with anti-Candida antibodies and protected with Tween 20. Reprinted with permission from [42]

Fig. 13

Schematic illustration detailing of the fabrication and the detection principle of glip biosensor based on AuNPs for diagnosis of invasive Aspergillosis. Reprinted with permission from [146]

Fig. 14

Schematic representation of magnetic field induced self-assembly method for detecting COVID-19 [159]. Reproduced from [Physics of Fluids 33, 042,004 (2021)], with the permission of AIP Publishing

Fig. 15

Configuration of the microfluidic chip. Reprinted with permission from [185]

Fig. 16

Methods of the microfluidic chip to detect virus-based respiratory infectious diseases. Reprinted with permission from [186]

Fig. 17

a and b Microfluidic chip for the detection of influenza A, c Procedure of microfluidic assay. Reprinted with permission from [193]