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. 2021 Sep 15;9(9):CD003030.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003030.pub3.

Continuing education meetings and workshops: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes

Louise Forsetlund  1 , Mary Ann O'Brien  2 , Lisa Forsén  1 , Liv Merete Reinar  1 , Mbah P Okwen  3 , Tanya Horsley  4 , Christopher J Rose  1
Affiliations

Continuing education meetings and workshops: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes

Louise Forsetlund et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Educational meetings are used widely by health personnel to provide continuing medical education and to promote implementation of innovations or translate new knowledge to change practice within healthcare systems. Previous reviews have concluded that educational meetings can result in small changes in behaviour, but that effects vary considerably. Investigations into which characteristics of educational meetings might lead to greater impact have yielded varying results, and factors that might explain heterogeneity in effects remain unclear. This is the second update of this Cochrane Review.

Objectives: • To assess the effects of educational meetings on professional practice and healthcare outcomes • To investigate factors that might explain the heterogeneity of these effects SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, ERIC, Science Citation Index Expanded (ISI Web of Knowledge), and Social Sciences Citation Index (last search in November 2016).

Selection criteria: We sought randomised trials examining the effects of educational meetings on professional practice and patient outcomes.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed risk of bias. One review author assessed the certainty of evidence (GRADE) and discussed with a second review author. We included studies in the primary analysis that reported baseline data and that we judged to be at low or unclear risk of bias. For each comparison of dichotomous outcomes, we measured treatment effect as risk difference adjusted for baseline compliance. We expressed adjusted risk difference values as percentages, and we noted that values greater than zero favour educational meetings. For continuous outcomes, we measured treatment effect as per cent change relative to the control group mean post test, adjusted for baseline performance; we expressed values as percentages and noted that values greater than zero favour educational meetings. We report means and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and, when appropriate, medians and interquartile ranges to facilitate comparisons to previous versions of this review. We analysed professional and patient outcomes separately and analysed 22 variables that were hypothesised a priori to explain heterogeneity. We explored heterogeneity by using univariate meta-regression and by inspecting violin plots.

Main results: We included 215 studies involving more than 28,167 health professionals, including 142 new studies for this update. Educational meetings as the single intervention or the main component of a multi-faceted intervention compared with no intervention • Probably slightly improve compliance with desired practice when compared with no intervention (65 comparisons, 7868 health professionals for dichotomous outcomes (adjusted risk difference 6.79%, 95% CI 6.62% to 6.97%; median 4.00%; interquartile range 0.29% to 13.00%); 28 comparisons, 2577 health professionals for continuous outcomes (adjusted relative percentage change 44.36%, 95% CI 41.98% to 46.75%; median 20.00%; interquartile range 6.00% to 65.00%)) • Probably slightly improve patient outcomes compared with no intervention (15 comparisons, 2530 health professionals for dichotomous outcomes (adjusted risk difference 3.30%, 95% CI 3.10% to 3.51%; median 0.10%; interquartile range 0.00% to 4.00%); 28 comparisons, 2294 health professionals for continuous outcomes (adjusted relative percentage change 8.35%, 95% CI 7.46% to 9.24%; median 2.00%; interquartile range -1.00% to 21.00%)) The certainty of evidence for this comparison is moderate. Educational meetings alone compared with other interventions • May improve compliance with desired practice when compared with other interventions (6 studies, 1402 health professionals for dichotomous outcomes (adjusted risk difference 9.99%, 95% CI 9.47% to 10.52%; median 16.5%; interquartile range 0.80% to 16.50%); 2 studies, 72 health professionals for continuous outcomes (adjusted relative percentage change 12.00%, 95% CI 9.16% to 14.84%; median 12.00%; interquartile range 0.00% to 24.00%)) No studies met the inclusion criteria for patient outcome measurements. The certainty of evidence for this comparison is low. Interactive educational meetings compared with didactic (lecture-based) educational meetings • We are uncertain of effects on compliance with desired practice (3 studies, 370 health professionals for dichotomous outcomes; 1 study, 192 health professionals for continuous outcomes) or on patient outcomes (1 study, 54 health professionals for continuous outcomes), as the certainty of evidence is very low Any other comparison of different formats and durations of educational meetings • We are uncertain of effects on compliance with desired practice (1 study, 19 health professionals for dichotomous outcomes; 1 study, 20 health professionals for continuous outcomes) or on patient outcomes (1 study, 113 health professionals for continuous outcomes), as the certainty of evidence is very low. Factors that might explain heterogeneity of effects Meta-regression suggests that larger estimates of effect are associated with studies judged to be at high risk of bias, with studies that had unit of analysis errors, and with studies in which the unit of analysis was the provider rather than the patient. Improved compliance with desired practice may be associated with: shorter meetings; poor baseline compliance; better attendance; shorter follow-up; professionals provided with additional take-home material; explicit building of educational meetings on theory; targeting of low- versus high-complexity behaviours; targeting of outcomes with high versus low importance; goal of increasing rather than decreasing behaviour; teaching by opinion leaders; and use of didactic versus interactive teaching methods. Pre-specified exploratory analyses of behaviour change techniques suggest that improved compliance with desired practice may be associated with use of a greater number of behaviour change techniques; goal-setting; provision of feedback; provision for social comparison; and provision for social support. Compliance may be decreased by the use of follow-up prompts, skills training, and barrier identification techniques.

Authors' conclusions: Compared with no intervention, educational meetings as the main component of an intervention probably slightly improve professional practice and, to a lesser extent, patient outcomes. Educational meetings may improve compliance with desired practice to a greater extent than other kinds of behaviour change interventions, such as text messages, fees, or office systems. Our findings suggest that multi-strategy approaches might positively influence the effects of educational meetings. Additional trials of educational meetings compared with no intervention are unlikely to change the review findings; therefore we will not further update this review comparison in the future. However, we note that randomised trials comparing different types of education are needed.

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Conflict of interest statement

Louise Forsetlund: none known. Mary Ann O'Brien: none known. Liv Merete Reinar: none known. Tanya Horsley: none known. Lisa Forsén: none known. Chris Rose: none known. Leah Mwai: none known.

Figures

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Study flow diagram.
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Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
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4
Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ funnel plots of estimates included in the meta‐analysis.
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Health personnel (dichotomous outcomes).
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Health personnel (dichotomous outcomes).
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Health personnel (dichotomous outcomes).
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Health personnel (dichotomous outcomes).
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Health personnel (dichotomous outcomes).
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ use of additional techniques.
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ use of additional techniques.
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Health personnel (continuous outcomes).
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Patients (dichotomous outcomes).
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Comparison 1. Educational meetings (main) vs None ‐ Patients (continuous outcomes).
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Comparison 2. Educational meetings (alone) vs Other ‐ Health personnel (dichotomous outcomes).
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Comparison 2. Educational meetings (alone) vs Other ‐ Health personnel (continuous outcomes).
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Comparison 3. Interactive vs didactic meetings ‐ Health personnel (dichotomous outcomes).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

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    1. Reynolds HW, Toroitich-Ruto C, Nasution M, Beaston-Blaakman A, Janowitz B. Effectiveness of training supervisors to improve reproductive health quality of care: a cluster-randomized trial in Kenya. Health Policy & Planning 2008;23(1):56-66. - PubMed
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Sanchez 2010 {published data only}
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    1. Smeele IJM, Grol RPTM, Schayck CP, den Bosch WJHM, den Hoogen HJM, Muris JWM. Can small group education and peer review improve care for patients with asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease? Quality in Health Care 1999;8:92-8. - PMC - PubMed
Smelt 2012 {published data only}
    1. Smelt AF, Blom JW, Dekker F, den Akker ME, Knuistingh Neven A, Zitman FG, et al. A proactive approach to migraine in primary care: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial. CMAJ 2012;184(4):E224-31. - PMC - PubMed
Smith 1995 {published data only}
    1. Smith DK, Shaw RW, Slack J, Marteau TM. Training obstetricians and midwives to present screening tests: evaluation of two brief interventions. Prenatal Diagnosis 1995;15:317-24. - PubMed
Sommers 2012 {published data only}
    1. Sommers BD, Desai N, Fiskio J, Licurse A, Thorndike M, Katz JT, Bates DW. An educational intervention to improve cost-effective care among medicine housestaff: a randomized controlled trial. Academic Medicine 2012;87(6):719-28. - PubMed
Stein 2001 {published data only}
    1. Stein CM, Griffin MR, Taylor JA, Pichert JW, Brandt KD, Ray WA. Educational program for nursing home physicians and staff to reduce use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs among nursing home residents: a randomized controlled trial. Medical Care 2001;39(5):436-45. - PubMed
Steinemann 2005 {published data only}
    1. Steinemann S, Roytman T, Chang J, Holzman J, Hishinuma E, Nagoshi M, et al. Impact of education on smoking cessation counseling by surgical residents. American Journal of Surgery 2005;189(1):44-6. - PubMed
Stewart 2007 {published data only}
    1. Stewart M, Brown JB, Hammerton J, Donner A, Gavin A, Holliday RL, et al. Improving communication between doctors and breast cancer patients. Annals of Family Medicine 2007;5(5):387-94. - PMC - PubMed
Strasser 2008 {published data only}
    1. Strasser DC, Falconer JA, Stevens AB, Uomoto JM, Herrin J, Bowen SE, et al. Team training and stroke rehabilitation outcomes: a cluster randomized trial. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 2008;89(1):10-5. - PubMed
Strecher 1991 {published data only}
    1. Strecher VJ, O'Malley MS, Villagra VG, Campbell EE, Gonzalez JJ, Irons TG, et al. Can residents be trained to counsel patients about quitting smoking? Results from a randomized trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1991;6:9-17. - PubMed
Sulaiman 2010 {published data only}
    1. Sulaiman ND, Barton CA, Liaw ST, Harris CA, Sawyer SM, Abramson MJ, et al. Do small group workshops and locally adapted guidelines improve asthma patients' health outcomes? A cluster randomized controlled trial. Family Practice 2010;27(3):246-54. - PubMed
Teri 2005 {published data only}
    1. Teri L, Huda P, Gibbons L, Young H, Leynseele J. STAR: a dementia-specific training program for staff in assisted living residences. Gerontologist 2005;45(5):686-93. - PubMed
Testad 2005 {published data only}
    1. Testad I, Aasland AM, Aarsland D. The effect of staff training on the use of restraint in dementia: a single-blind randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2005;20(6):587-90. - PubMed
Thom 1999 {published data only}
    1. Thom DH, Bloch DA, Segal ES, for the Stanford Trust Study Physician Group. An intervention to increase patients' trust in their physicians. Academic Medicine 1999;74:195-8. - PubMed
Thom 2006 {published data only}
    1. Thom DH, Tirado MD, Woon TL, McBride MR. Development and evaluation of a cultural competency training curriculum. BMC Medical Education 2006;6:38. - PMC - PubMed
Thompson 2000a {published data only}
    1. Thompson C, Kinmonth AL, Stevens L, Peveler RC, Stevens A, Ostler KJ, et al. Effects of a clinical-practice guideline and practice-based education on detection and outcome of depression in primary care: Hampshire Depression Project randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2000;355:185-91. - PubMed
Thompson 2000b {published data only}
    1. Thompson RS, Rivara FP, Thompson DC, Barlow WE, Sugg NK, Maiuro RD, et al. Identification and management of domestic violence: a randomized trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2000;19:253-63. - PubMed
Toft 2010 {published data only}
    1. Toft T, Rosendal M, Ornbol E, Olesen F, Frostholm L, Fink P. Training general practitioners in the treatment of functional somatic symptoms: effects on patient health in a cluster-randomised controlled trial (the Functional Illness in Primary Care study). Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics 2010;79(4):227-37. - PubMed
Trivalle 2010 {published data only}
    1. Trivalle C, Cartier T, Verny C, Mathieu AM, Davrinche P, Agostini H, et al, the IMEPAG Group. Identifying and preventing adverse drug events in elderly hospitalised patients: a randomised trial of a program to reduce adverse drug effects. Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging 2010;14(1):57-61. - PubMed
Van der Weijden 1999 {published data only}
    1. Van der Weijden T, Grol R, Knottnerus JA. Feasibility of a national cholesterol guideline in daily practice: a randomized controlled trial in 20 general practices. International Journal for Quality in Health Care 1999;11:131-7. - PubMed
Van Riet 2016 {published data only}
    1. Van Riet EES, Hoes A, Limburg A, Landman MAJ, Zuithoff PNA, Rutten FH. Effect of training general practitioners in drug treatment of newly detected heart failure patients with reduced or preserved ejection fraction: a cluster randomized trial. International Journal of Cardiology 2016;217:174-82. - PubMed
Varroud‐Vial 2004 {published data only}
    1. Varroud-Vial M, Simon D, Attali J, Durand-Zaleski I, Bera L, Attali C, et al. Improving glycaemic control of patients with Type 2 diabetes in a primary care setting: a French application of the Staged Diabetes Management prorgramme. Diabetic Medicine 2004;21:592-8. - PubMed
Veninga 1999 {published data only}
    1. Veninga CCM, Lagerløv P, Wahlström R, Muskova M, Denig P, Berkhof J, et al, Drug Education Project Group. Evaluating an educational intervention to improve the treatment of asthma in four European countries. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1999;160:1254-62. - PubMed
Verstappen 2003 {published data only}
    1. Verstappen WH, Weijden T, Sijbrandij J, Smeele I, Hermsen J, Grimshaw J, et al. Effect of a practice-based strategy on test ordering performance of primary care physicians: a randomized trial. JAMA 2003;289:2407-12. - PubMed
Walsh 2012 {published data only}
    1. Walsh MM, Belek M, Prakash P, Grimes B, Heckman B, Kaufman N, et al. The effect of training on the use of tobacco-use cessation guidelines in dental settings. Journal of the American Dental Association 2012;143(6):602-13. - PMC - PubMed
Wang 2013 {published data only}
    1. Wang X, Li WQ, Li X, An N, Chen H, Jan S, et al. Effects and cost-effectiveness of a guideline-oriented primary healthcare hypertension management program in Beijing, China: results from a 1-year controlled trial. Hypertension Res 2013;36:313-21. - PubMed
Ward 1996 {published data only}
    1. Ward J, Sanson-Fisher R. Does a 3-day workshop for family medicine trainees improve preventive care? A randomized control trial. Preventive Medicine 1996;25:741-7. - PubMed
Watson 2002a {published data only}
    1. Watson E, Clements A, Lucassen A, Yudkin P, Mackay J, Austoker J. Education improves general practitioner (GP) management of familial breast/ovarian cancer: findings from a cluster randomised controlled trial. Journal of Medical Genetics 2002;39(10):779-81. - PMC - PubMed
Watson 2002b {published data only}
    1. Watson MC, Bond CM, Grimshaw JM, Mollison J, Ludbrook A, Walker AE. Educational strategies to promote evidence-based community pharmacy practice: a cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT). Family Practice 2002;19(5):529-536. - PubMed
Watson 2008 {published data only}
    1. Watson J, Helliwell P, Morton V, Adebajo A, Dickson J, Russell I, et al. Shoulder acute pain in primary healthcare: is retraining effective for GP principals? SAPPHIRE--a randomized controlled trial. Rheumatology 2008;47(12):1795-802. - PubMed
Weaver 2016 {published data only}
    1. Weaver MR, Pillay E, Jed SL, Kadt J, Galagan S, Gilvydis J, et al. Three methods of delivering clinic-based training on syndromic management of sexually transmitted diseases in South Africa: a pilot study. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2016;92(2):135-41. - PMC - PubMed
Weiland 2015 {published data only}
    1. Weiland A, Blankenstein AH, Van Saase JL, Van der Molen HT, Jacobs ME, Abels DC, et al. Training medical specialists to communicate better with patients with medically unexplained physical symptoms (MUPS): a randomized, controlled trial. PLoS ONE 2015;10(9):e0138342. - PMC - PubMed
Welschen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Welschen I, Kuyvenhoven MM, Hoes AW, Verheij TJM. Effectiveness of a multiple intervention to reduce antibiotic prescribing for respiratory tract symptoms in primary care: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2004;329:431. - PMC - PubMed
Weltermann 2016 {published data only}
    1. Weltermann B, Viehmann A, Kersting C. Improving management of resistant hypertension: rationale and protocol for a cluster randomized trial addressing physician managers in primary care. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2016;47:109-14. - PubMed
Westphal 1995 {published data only}
    1. Westphal MF, Taddei JAC, Venancio SI, Bogus CM. Breast-feeding training for health professionals and resultant institutional changes. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1995;73:461-8. - PMC - PubMed
White 1985 {published data only}
    1. White CW, Albanese MA, Brown DD, Caplan RM. The effectiveness of continuing medical education in changing the behavior of physicians caring for patients with acute myocardial infarction: a controlled randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 1985;102:686-92. - PubMed
Wiefferink 2006 {published data only}
    1. Wiefferink CH, Reijneveld SA, Wijs J, Swagerman M, Campman D, Paulussen TG. Screening for psychosocial problems in 5-6-year olds: a randomised controlled trial of routine health assessments. Patient Education & Counseling 2006;60(1):57-65. - PubMed
Wilson 1992 {published data only}
    1. Wilson DMC, Ciliska D, Singer J, Williams K, Alleyne J, Lindsay E. Family physicians and exercise counseling. Canadian Family Physician 1992;38:2003-10. - PMC - PubMed
Wirtschafter 1986 {published data only}
    1. Wirtschafter DD, Sumners J, Jackson JR, Brooks M, Turner M. Continuing medical education using clinical algorithms: a controlled-trial assessment of effect on neonatal care. American Journal of Diseases of Children 1986;140:791-7. - PubMed
Worrall 1999 {published data only}
    1. Worrall G, Angel J, Chaulk P, Clarke C, Robbins M. Effectiveness of an educational strategy to improve family physicians' detection and management of depression: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ 1999;161:37-40. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Akhus 2016 {published data only}
    1. Aakhus E, Granlund I, Odgaard-Jensen J, Oxman AD, Flottorp SA. A tailored intervention to implement guideline recommendations for elderly patients with depression in primary care: a pragmatic cluster randomised trial. Implementation Science 2016;11:32. - PMC - PubMed
Althabe 2008 {published data only}
    1. Althabe F, Buekens P, Bergel E, Belizan JM, Campbell MK, Moss N, et al. A behavioral intervention to improve obstetrical care. New England Journal of Medicine 2008;358(18):1929-40. - PubMed
Amiel 2006 {published data only}
    1. Amiel GE, Ungar L, Alperin M, Baharier Z, Cohen R, Reis S. Ability of primary care physician's to break bad news: a performance based assessment of an educational intervention. Patient Education and Counseling 2006;60(1):10-5. - PubMed
Banting 2011 {published data only}
    1. Banting DW, Amaechi Bennett T, Bader JD, Blanchard P, Gilbert GH, Gillion CM, et al. Examiner training and reliability in two randomized clinical trials of adult dental caries. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 2011;71(4):335-44. - PMC - PubMed
Bloos 2017 {published data only}
    1. Bloos F, Rüddel DT, Thomas-Rüddel D, Schwarzkopf D, Pausch C, Harbarth S, et al, for the MEDUSA Study Group. Effect of a multifaceted educational intervention for anti‑infectious measures on sepsis mortality: a cluster randomized trial. Intensive Care Medicine 2017;43(11):1602-12. - PubMed
Bredesen 2016 {published data only}
    1. Bredesen IM, Bjøro K, Gunningberg L, Hofoss D. Effect of e-learning program on risk assessment and pressure ulcer classification: a randomized study. Nurse Education Today 2016;40:191-7. - PubMed
Buchanan 2014 {published data only}
    1. Buchanan H, Siegfried N, Jelsma J, Lombard C. Comparison of an interactive with a didactic educational intervention for improving the evidence-based practice knowledge of occupational therapists in the public health sector in South Africa: a randomised controlled trial. Trials [Electronic Resource] 2014;15:216. - PMC - PubMed
Campbell 1991 {published data only}
    1. Campbell HS, Fletcher SW, Pilgrim CA, Morgan TM, Lin S. Improving physicians' and nurses' clinical breast examination: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1991;7:1-8. - PubMed
Camp‐Sorrell 1991 {published data only}
    1. Camp-Sorrell D, O'Sullivan P. Effects of continuing education: pain assessment and documentation. Cancer Nursing 1991;14:49-54. - PubMed
Carlsson 1998 {published data only}
    1. Carlsson B, Gravgaard AM, Moller T, Wallin K, Lindholm LH. Teaching oncology and cancer care to general practice trainees in Sweden: a two-year prospective, randomized study. Journal of Cancer Education 1998;13:14-9. - PubMed
Casebeer 1999 {published data only}
    1. Casebeer LL, Klapow JC, Centor RM, Stafford MA, Renkl LA, Mallinger AP, et al. An intervention to increase physicians' use of adherence-enhancing strategies in managing hypercholesterolemic patients. Academic Medicine 1999;74(12):1334-9. - PubMed
Christensen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Christensen MB, Christensen B, Mortensen JT, Olesen F. Intervention among frequent attenders of the out-of-hours service: a stratified cluster randomized controlled trial. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care 2004;22:180-6. - PubMed
Clancy 2016 {published data only}
    1. Clancy R, Taylor A. Engaging clinicians in motivational interviewing: comparing online with face-to-face post-training consolidation. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 2016;25(1):51-61. - PubMed
Cortés‐Sanabria 2008 {published data only}
    1. Cortés-Sanabria L, Cabrera-Pivaral CE, Cueto-Manzano AM, Rojas-Campos E, Barragán G, Hernández-Anaya M, et al. Improving care of patients with diabetes and CKD: a pilot study for a cluster-randomized trial. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2008;51(5):777-88. - PubMed
Davidoff 1989 {published data only}
    1. Davidoff F, Goodspeed R, Clive J. Changing test ordering behavior: a randomized controlled trial comparing probabilistic reasoning with cost-containment education. Medical Care 1989;27:45-58. - PubMed
Dimeff 2015 {published data only}
    1. Dimeff LA, Harned MS, Woodcock EA, Skutch JM, Koerner K, Linehan MM. Investigating bang for your training buck: a randomized controlled trial comparing three methods of training clinicians in two core strategies of dialectical behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy 2015;46(3):283-95. - PubMed
Doyne 2004 {published data only}
    1. Doyne EO, Alfaro MP, Siegel RM, Atherton HD, Schoettker PJ, Bernier J, Kotagal UR. A randomized controlled trial to change antibiotic prescribing patterns in a community. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2004;158(6):577. - PubMed
Dudzinski 2016 {published data only}
    1. Dudzinski DM, Bhatia RS, Mi MY, Isselbacher EM, Picard MH, Weiner RB. Effect of educational intervention on the rate of rarely appropriate outpatient echocardiograms ordered by attending academic cardiologists: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiology 2016;1(7):805-12. - PubMed
Dunn 1992 {published data only}
    1. Dunn S, Niday P, Watters NE, McGrath P, Alcock D. The provision and evaluation of a neonatal resuscitation program. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 1992;23:118-26. - PubMed
Ekstrom 1999 {published data only}
    1. Ekstrom E, Hickam DH, Lessler DS, Buchner DM. Changing physician practice of physical activity counseling. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1999;14(6):376-8. - PMC - PubMed
Feder 2011 {published data only}
    1. Feder G, Davies RA, Baird K, Dunne D, Eldridge S, Griffiths C, et al. Identification and Referral to Improve Safety (IRIS) of women experiencing domestic violence with a primary care training and support programme: a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2011;378:1788-95. - PubMed
Figueiras 2001 {published data only}
    1. Figueiras A, Sastre I, Tato F, Rodríguez C, Lado E, Caamaño F, Gestal-Otero JJ. One-to-one versus group sessions to improve prescription in primary care: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Medical Care 2001;39(2):158-67. - PubMed
Foster 2016 {published data only}
    1. Foster JM, Smith L, Usherwood T, Sawyer SM, Reddel HK. General practitioner-delivered adherence counseling in asthma: feasibility and usefulness of skills, training and support tools. Journal of Asthma 2016;53(3):311–20. - PubMed
Francke 1997 {published data only}
    1. Francke AL, Luiken JB, Schepper AM, Abu-Saad HH, Grypdonck M. Effects of a continuing education program on nurses' pain assessment practices. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 1997;13:90-7. - PubMed
Fu 2014 {published data only}
    1. Fu SS, Roth C, Battaglia CT, Nelson DB, Farmer MM, Do T, et al. Training primary care clinicians in motivational interviewing: a comparison of two models. Patient Education and Counseling 2015;98(1):61-8. - PubMed
Gibon 2013 {published data only}
    1. Gibon A, Merckaert I, Liénard A, Libert Y, Delvaux N, Marchal S, et al. Is it possible to improve radiotherapy team members’ communication skills? A randomized study assessing the efficacy of a 38-h communication skills training program. Radiotherapy and Oncology 2013;109(1):170-7. - PubMed
Gifford 1999 {published data only}
    1. Gifford DR, Holloway RG, Frankel MR, Albright CL, Meyerson R, Griggs RC, et al. Improving adherence to dementia guidelines through education and opinion leaders: a randomized, controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 1999;131(4):237-46. - PubMed
Heatley 2005 {published data only}
    1. Heatley C, Ricketts T, Forrest J. Training general practitioners in cognitive behavioural therapy for panic disorder: randomized-controlled trial. Journal of Mental Health 2005;14(1):73-82.
Huang 2002 {published data only}
    1. Huang J, Jiang D, Wang X, Liu Y, Fennie K, Burgess J, Williams AB. Changing knowledge, behavior, and practice related to universal precautions among hospital nurses in China. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 2002;33(5):217-24. - PubMed
Johnson 2015 {published data only}
    1. Johnson SS, Castle PH, Van Marter D, Roc A, Neubauer D. The effect of physician continuing medical education on patient-reported outcomes for identifying and optimally managing obstructive sleep apnea. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine 2015;11(3):197-204. - PMC - PubMed
Keeley 2014 {published data only}
    1. Keeley RD, Burke BL, Brody D, Dimidjian S, Engel M, Emsermann C, et al. Training to use motivational interviewing techniques for depression: a cluster randomized trial. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 2014;27(5):621-36. - PubMed
Killaspy 2015 {published data only}
    1. Killaspy H, Marston L, Green N, Harrison I, Lean M, Cook S, et al. Clinical effectiveness of a staff training intervention in mental health inpatient rehabilitation units designed to increase patients' engagement in activities (the Rehabilitation Effectiveness for Activities for Life [REAL] study): single-blind, cluster-randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Psychiatry 2015;2(1):38-48. - PubMed
Langewitz 1998 {published data only}
    1. Langewitz WA, Eich P, Kiss A, Wossmer B. Improving communication skills: a randomized controlled behaviorally oriented intervention study for residents in internal medicine. Psychosomatic Medicine 1998;60:268-76. - PubMed
Lopez‐Gonzales 2015 {published data only}
    1. Lopez-Gonzalez E, Herdeiro MT, Pineiro-Lamas M, Figueiras A, Group G . Effect of an educational intervention to improve adverse drug reaction reporting in physicians: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Drug Safety 2015;38(2):189-96. - PubMed
Lundgren 1999 {published data only}
    1. Lundgren A, Wahren LK. Effect of education on evidence-based care and handling of peripheral intravenous lines. Journal of Clinical Nursing 1999;8(5):577-85. - PubMed
Magrini 2014 {published data only}
    1. Magrini N, Formoso G, Capelli O, Maestri E, Nonino F, Paltrinieri B, et al. Long term effectiveness on prescribing of two multifaceted educational interventions: results of two large scale randomized cluster trials. PLoS ONE 2014;9(10):e109915. - PMC - PubMed
Martin 2004 {published data only}
    1. Martin CM, Doig GS, Heyland DK, Morrison T, Sibbald WJ. Multicentre, cluster-randomized clinical trial of algorithms for critical-care enteral and parenteral therapy (ACCEPT). Canadian Medical Association Journal 2004;170(2):197-204. - PMC - PubMed
Meador 1997 {published data only}
    1. Meador KG, Taylor JA, Thapa PB, Fought RL, Ray WA. Predictors of antipsychotic withdrawal or dose reduction in a randomized controlled trial of provider education. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1997;45:207-10. - PubMed
Middleton 2006 {published data only}
    1. Middleton JF, McKinley RK, Gillies CL. Effect of patient completed agenda forms and doctor's education about the agenda on the outcome of conslutlations: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2006;332(7552):1238-42. - PMC - PubMed
O'Neill 1999 {published data only}
    1. O'Neill KL, Ross-Kerr JC. Impact of an instructional program on nurses' accuracy in capillary blood glucose monitoring. Clinical Nursing Research 1999;8(2):166-78. - PubMed
Ockene 1995 {published data only}
    1. Ockene JK, Ockene IS, Quirk ME, Hebert JR, Saperia GM, Luippold RS, et al. Physician training for patient-centered nutrition counseling in a lipid intervention trial. Preventive Medicine 1995;24:563-70. - PubMed
Ornstein 2004 {published data only}
    1. Ornstein S, Jenkins RG, Nietert PJ, Feifer C, Roylance LF, Nemeth L, et al. A multimethod quality improvement intervention to improve preventive cardiovascular care: a cluster randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2004;141(7):523-32. - PubMed
Parker 1995 {published data only}
    1. Parker MT, Leggett-Frazier N, Vincent PA, Swanson MS. The impact of an educational program on improving diabetes knowledge and changing behaviors of nurses in long-term care facilities. The Diabetes Educator 1995;21:541-5. - PubMed
Perera 1983 {published data only}
    1. Perera DR, LoGerfo JP, Shulenberger E, Ylvisaker JT, Kirz HL. Teaching sigmoidoscopy to primary care physicians: a controlled study of continuing medical education. Journal of Family Practice 1983;16:785-8. - PubMed
Pinkerton 1980 {published data only}
    1. Pinkerton RE, Tinanoff N, Willms JL, Tapp JT. Resident physician performance in a continuing education format: does newly acquired knowledge improve patient care. JAMA 1980;244:2183-5. - PubMed
Premaratne 1999 {published data only}
    1. Premaratne UN, Sterne JA, Marks GB, Webb JR, Azima H, Burney PG. Clustered randomised trial of an intervention to improve the management of asthma: Greenwich asthma study. BMJ 1999;318(7193):1251-5. - PMC - PubMed
Price‐Haywood 2014 {published data only}
    1. Price-Haywood EG, Harden-Barrios J, Cooper LA. Comparative effectiveness of audit-feedback versus additional physician communication training to improve cancer screening for patients with limited health literacy. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2014;29(8):1113-21. - PMC - PubMed
Proctor 1999 {published data only}
    1. Proctor R, Burns A, Powell HS, Tarrier N, Faragher B, Richardson G, et al. Behavioural management in nursing and residential homes: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999;354(9172):26-9. - PubMed
Quirk 1991 {published data only}
    1. Quirk M, Ockene J, Kristeller J, Goldberg R, Donnelly G, Amick T, et al. Training family practice and internal medicine residents to counsel patients who smoke: improvement and retention of counseling skills. Family Medicine 1991;23:108-11. - PubMed
Ratanajamit 2002 {published data only}
    1. Ratanajamit C, Chongsuvivatwong V, Geater AF. A randomized controlled educational intervention on emergency contraception among drugstore personnel in southern Thailand. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 2002;57(4):196-9. - PubMed
Roque 2016 {published data only}
    1. Roque F, Teixeira-Rodrigues A, Breitenfeld L, Pineiro-Lamas M, Figueiras A, Herdeiro MT. Decreasing antibiotic use through a joint intervention targeting physicians and pharmacists. Future of Microbiology 2016;11:877-86. - PubMed
Roter 1990 {published data only}
    1. Roter DL, Cole KA, Kern DE, Barker LR, Grayson M. An evaluation of residency training in interviewing skills and the psychosocial domain of medical practice. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1990;5:347-54. - PubMed
Saturno 1995 {published data only}
    1. Saturno PJ. Training health professionals to implement quality improvement activities: results of a randomized controlled trial after one year of follow-up. International Journal for Quality in Health Care 1995;7:119-26. - PubMed
Sibley 1982 {published data only}
    1. Sibley JC, Sackett DL, Neufeld V, Gerrard B, Rudnick V, Fraser W. A randomized trial of continuing medical education. New England Journal of Medicine 1982;306:511-5. - PubMed
Solomon 2004 {published data only}
    1. Solomon DH, Katz JN, La Tourette AM, Coblyn J. Multifaceted intervention to improve rheumatologists' management of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism 2004;51:383-7. - PubMed
Stross 1983 {published data only}
    1. Stross JK. Maintaining competency in advanced cardiac life support skills. JAMA 1983;249:3339-41. - PubMed
Sulmasy 1992 {published data only}
    1. Sulmasy DP, Geller G, Faden R, Levine DM. The quality of mercy: caring for patients with 'do not resuscitate' orders. JAMA 1992;267:682-6. - PubMed
Sulmasy 1996 {published data only}
    1. Sulmasy DP, Song KY, Marx ES, Mitchell JM. Strategies to promote the use of advance directives in a residency outpatient practice. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1996;11:657-63. - PubMed
Terry 1981 {published data only}
    1. Terry PB, Wang VL, Flynn BS, Cuthie J, Salim JH, Windsor RA, et al. A continuing medical education program in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases: design and outcome. American Review of Respiratory Disease 1981;123:42-6. - PubMed
Thoonsen 2015 {published data only}
    1. Thoonsen B, Vissers K, Verhagen S, Prins J, Bor H, Weel C, et al. Training general practitioners in early identification and anticipatory palliative care planning: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Family Practice 2015;16:126. - PMC - PubMed
Town 2016 {published data only}
    1. Town K, McNulty CA, Ricketts EJ, Hartney T, Nardone A, Folkard KA, et al. Service evaluation of an educational intervention to improve sexual health services in primary care implemented using a step-wedge design: analysis of chlamydia testing and diagnosis rate changes. BMC Public Health 2016;16:686. - PMC - PubMed
Tziraki 2000 {published data only}
    1. Tziraki C, Graubard BI, Manley M, Kosary C, Moler JE, Edwards BK. Effect of training on adoption of cancer prevention nutrition-related activities by primary care practices: results of a randomized, controlled study. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2000;15(3):155-62. - PMC - PubMed
Verstappen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Verstappen WH, Weijden T, Dubois WI, Smeele I, Hermsen J, Tan FE, Grol RP. Improving test ordering in primary care: the added value of a small-group quality improvement strategy compared with classic feedback only. Annals of Family Medicine 2004;2:569-75. - PMC - PubMed
Vidal‐Pardo 2013 {published data only}
    1. Vidal-Pardo JI, Perez-Castro TR, Lopez-Alvarez XL, Santiago-Perez MI, Garcia-Soidan FJ, Muniz J. Effect of an educational intervention in primary care physicians on the compliance of indicators of good clinical practice in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus [OBTEDIGA project]. International Journal of Clinical Practice 2013;67(8):750-8. - PubMed
Vitolo 2013 {published data only}
    1. Vitolo MR, Louzada ML, Rauber F. Positive impact of child feeding training program for primary care health professionals: a cluster randomized field trial. Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia 2014;17(4):873-86. - PubMed
Wedge 2005 {published data only}
    1. Wedge C, Gosney M. Pressure-relieving equipment: promoting its correct use amongst nurses via differing modes of educational delivery. Journal of Clinical Nursing 2005;14(4):473-8. - PubMed
Wong 2007 {published data only}
    1. Wong SY, Cheung AK, Lee A, Cheung N, Leung A, Wong W, et al. Improving general practitioners' interviewing skills in managing patients with depression and anxiety: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Medical Teacher 2007;29(6):e175-e83. - PubMed
Woodcock 1999 {published data only}
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