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Meta-Analysis
. 2021 Sep 28;9(9):CD009790.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009790.pub2.

Exercise therapy for chronic low back pain

Jill A Hayden  1 , Jenna Ellis  1 , Rachel Ogilvie  1 , Antti Malmivaara  2 , Maurits W van Tulder  3
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Exercise therapy for chronic low back pain

Jill A Hayden et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Low back pain has been the leading cause of disability globally for at least the past three decades and results in enormous direct healthcare and lost productivity costs.

Objectives: The primary objective of this systematic review is to assess the impact of exercise treatment on pain and functional limitations in adults with chronic non-specific low back pain compared to no treatment, usual care, placebo and other conservative treatments.

Search methods: We searched CENTRAL (which includes the Cochrane Back and Neck trials register), MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, PEDro, SPORTDiscus, and trials registries (ClinicalTrials.gov and World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform), and conducted citation searching of relevant systematic reviews to identify additional studies. The review includes data for trials identified in searches up to 27 April 2018. All eligible trials have been identified through searches to 7 December 2020, but have not yet been extracted; these trials will be integrated in the next update.

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials that assessed exercise treatment compared to no treatment, usual care, placebo or other conservative treatment on the outcomes of pain or functional limitations for a population of adult participants with chronic non-specific low back pain of more than 12 weeks' duration.

Data collection and analysis: Two authors screened and assessed studies independently, with consensus. We extracted outcome data using electronic databases; pain and functional limitations outcomes were re-scaled to 0 to 100 points for meta-analyses where 0 is no pain or functional limitations. We assessed risk of bias using the Cochrane risk of bias (RoB) tool and used GRADE to evaluate the overall certainty of the evidence. When required, we contacted study authors to obtain missing data. To interpret meta-analysis results, we considered a 15-point difference in pain and a 10-point difference in functional limitations outcomes to be clinically important for the primary comparison of exercise versus no treatment, usual care or placebo.

Main results: We included 249 trials of exercise treatment, including studies conducted in Europe (122 studies), Asia (38 studies), North America (33 studies), and the Middle East (24 studies). Sixty-one per cent of studies (151 trials) examined the effectiveness of two or more different types of exercise treatment, and 57% (142 trials) compared exercise treatment to a non-exercise comparison treatment. Study participants had a mean age of 43.7 years and, on average, 59% of study populations were female. Most of the trials were judged to be at risk of bias, including 79% at risk of performance bias due to difficulty blinding exercise treatments. We found moderate-certainty evidence that exercise treatment is more effective for treatment of chronic low back pain compared to no treatment, usual care or placebo comparisons for pain outcomes at earliest follow-up (MD -15.2, 95% CI -18.3 to -12.2), a clinically important difference. Certainty of evidence was downgraded mainly due to heterogeneity. For the same comparison, there was moderate-certainty evidence for functional limitations outcomes (MD -6.8 (95% CI -8.3 to -5.3); this finding did not meet our prespecified threshold for minimal clinically important difference. Certainty of evidence was downgraded mainly due to some evidence of publication bias. Compared to all other investigated conservative treatments, exercise treatment was found to have improved pain (MD -9.1, 95% CI -12.6 to -5.6) and functional limitations outcomes (MD -4.1, 95% CI -6.0 to -2.2). These effects did not meet our prespecified threshold for clinically important difference. Subgroup analysis of pain outcomes suggested that exercise treatment is probably more effective than education alone (MD -12.2, 95% CI -19.4 to -5.0) or non-exercise physical therapy (MD -10.4, 95% CI -15.2 to -5.6), but with no differences observed for manual therapy (MD 1.0, 95% CI -3.1 to 5.1). In studies that reported adverse effects (86 studies), one or more adverse effects were reported in 37 of 112 exercise groups (33%) and 12 of 42 comparison groups (29%). Twelve included studies reported measuring adverse effects in a systematic way, with a median of 0.14 (IQR 0.01 to 0.57) per participant in the exercise groups (mostly minor harms, e.g. muscle soreness), and 0.12 (IQR 0.02 to 0.32) in comparison groups.

Authors' conclusions: We found moderate-certainty evidence that exercise is probably effective for treatment of chronic low back pain compared to no treatment, usual care or placebo for pain. The observed treatment effect for the exercise compared to no treatment, usual care or placebo comparisons is small for functional limitations, not meeting our threshold for minimal clinically important difference. We also found exercise to have improved pain (low-certainty evidence) and functional limitations outcomes (moderate-certainty evidence) compared to other conservative treatments; however, these effects were small and not clinically important when considering all comparisons together. Subgroup analysis suggested that exercise treatment is probably more effective than advice or education alone, or electrotherapy, but with no differences observed for manual therapy treatments.

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Conflict of interest statement

Jill Hayden has received peer‐reviewed funding from the Nova Scotia Health Research Foundation (now Research Nova Scotia), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Cochrane Strategic Methods Fund and Cochrane Methods Innovation Fund, the QEII Foundation, and the Nova Scotia Health Authority. She previously held a Canadian Chiropractic Research Foundation/Dalhousie University Research Professorship in Epidemiology.

Jenna Ellis: Research funded by grant from the Canadian Institute of Health Research Nova Scotia Health Research Foundation (presently Research Nova Scotia).

Rachel Ogilvie: Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Nova Scotia Health Research Foundation (presently Research Nova Scotia)

Antti Malmivaara: none known

Maurits van Tulder: No competing interest; all research funding comes from non‐profit, governmental funding agencies (Danish Occupational Therapy Association, European Pain Federation, Netherlands Health Care Institute and the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development) and all funding including travel and stay expenses were paid to the VU University Amsterdam.

Maurits van Tulder was formerly Co‐ordinating Editor of the Cochrane Back and Neck Review Group; he and Antti Malmivaara are currently on the Editorial Board, and Jill Hayden is on the Associate Editorial Board. Editors are required to conduct at least one Cochrane Review, to ensure that editors are aware of the processes and commitment needed to conduct reviews. This involvement does not seem to be a source of conflict of interest in the Cochrane Back and Neck Review Group. Any editor who is a review author is excluded from editorial decisions on the review in which they are contributors.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Summary characteristics of included studies.
3
3
Funnel plots for primary analyses (x axis = mean difference). Earliest follow‐up study results for: 1. Pain outcome: a. exercise compared to placebo, no treatment or usual care, b. exercise compared to other conservative treatments; and 2. Functional limitations: c. exercise compared to no treatment, usual care or placebo, d. exercise compared to other conservative treatments.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 2: Pain (/100): Short‐term follow‐up (6‐12 weeks)
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 3: Pain (/100): Medium‐term follow‐up (~6 months)
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 4: Pain (/100): Long‐term follow‐up (> 12 months)
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 5: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 6: Function (/100): Short‐term follow‐up (6‐12 weeks)
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 7: Function (/100): Medium‐term follow‐up (~6 months)
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1: PRIMARY ANALYSES, Outcome 8: Function (/100): Long‐term follow‐up (> 12 months)
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Population source), Outcome 1: Pain (/100); Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. no treatment or usual care
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Population source), Outcome 2: Pain (/100); Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. other conservative treatment
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Population source), Outcome 3: Function (/100); Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. no treatment or usual care
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Population source), Outcome 4: Function (/100); Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. other conservative treatment
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Symptom duration), Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. no treatment or usual care
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Symptom duration), Outcome 2: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. other conservative treatment
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Symptom duration), Outcome 3: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. no treatment or usual care
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Symptom duration), Outcome 4: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. other conservative treatment
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Radicular symptoms), Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. no treatment or usual care
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Radicular symptoms), Outcome 2: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. other conservative treatment
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Radicular symptoms), Outcome 3: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. no treatment or usual care
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Radicular symptoms), Outcome 4: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up; Exercise vs. other conservative treatment
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Conservative comparisons), Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up, Exercise vs. other conservative treatments
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5: SUBGROUP ANALYSES (Conservative comparisons), Outcome 2: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up, Exercise vs. other conservative treatments
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (No assumptions about data), Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up, no imputation of SD
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (No assumptions about data), Outcome 2: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up, no imputation of SD
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (No assumptions about data), Outcome 3: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up, RMDQ measurement only
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (Low risk of bias), Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (Low risk of bias), Outcome 2: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (Excluding outlying means), Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (Excluding outlying means), Outcome 2: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (Placebo only comparisons), Outcome 1: Pain (/100): Earliest follow‐up
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9: SENSITIVITY ANALYSES (Placebo only comparisons), Outcome 2: Function (/100): Earliest follow‐up
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Comment in

References

References to studies included in this review

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    1. Djavid GE, Mehrdad R, Ghasemi M, Hasan-Zadeh H, Sotoodeh-Manesh A, Pouryaghoub G. In chronic low back pain, low level laser therapy combined with exercise is more beneficial than exercise alone in the long term: a randomised trial. Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 2007;53(3):155-60. - PubMed
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Farajzadeh 2017 {published data only}
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Ferreira 2007 {published data only}
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    1. Franca FR, Burke TN, Caffaro RR, Ramos LA, Marques AP. Effects of muscular stretching and segmental stabilization on functional disability and pain in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Manipulative & Physiological Therapeutics 2012;35(4):279-85. - PubMed
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Garcia 2013 {published data only}
    1. Garcia AN, Costa LC, Da Silva TM, Gondo FL, Cyrillo FN, Costa RA, et al. Effectiveness of back school versus McKenzie exercises in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy 2013;93(6):729-47. - PubMed
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Garcia 2017 {published data only}
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Groessl 2017 {published data only}
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Harris 2017 {published data only}
    1. Harris A, Moe TF, Eriksen HR, Tangen T, Lie SA, Tveito TH, et al. Brief intervention, physical exercise and cognitive behavioural group therapy for patients with chronic low back pain (the CINS trial). European Journal of Pain 2017;21(8):1397-407. - PubMed
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Hartvigsen 2010 {published data only}
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Hasanpour‐Dehkordi 2017 {published data only}
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Henry 2014 {published data only}
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Highland 2018 {published data only}
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Hildebrandt 2000 {published data only}
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Iversen 2018 {published data only}
    1. Iversen VM, Vasseljen O, Mork PJ, Gismervik S, Bertheussen GF, Salvesen O, et al. Resistance band training or general exercise in multidisciplinary rehabilitation of low back pain? A randomized trial. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 2018;28(9):2074-83. - PubMed
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Jaromi 2012 {published data only}
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Kendall 2015 {published data only}
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Miyamoto 2013 {published data only}
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Mohseni‐Bandpei 2011 {published data only}
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Muharram 2011 {published data only}
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Ojoawo 2017 {published data only}
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Underwood 2004 {published data only}
    1. Underwood M. United Kingdom back pain exercise and manipulation (UK BEAM) randomised trial: effectiveness of physical treatments for back pain in primary care. British Medical Journal 2004;329(7479):1377-81. - PMC - PubMed
Unsgaard‐Tondel 2010 {published data only}
    1. Unsgaard-Tondel M, Fladmark AM, Salvesen O, Vasseljen O. Motor control exercises, sling exercises, and general exercises for patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial with 1-year follow-up. Physical Therapy 2010;90(10):1426-40. - PubMed
    1. Vasseljen O, Unsgaard-Tondel M, Westad C, Mork PJ. Effect of core stability exercises on feed-forward activation of deep abdominal muscles in chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Spine 2012;37(13):1101-8. - PubMed
Valenza 2017 {published data only}
    1. Valenza M, Rodriguez-Torres J, Cabrera-Martos I, Diaz-Pelegrina A, Aguilar-Ferrandiz M, Castellote-Caballero Y. Results of a Pilates exercise program in patients with chronic non-specific low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2017;31(6):753-60. - PubMed
Van der Roer 2008 {published data only}
    1. Van der Roer N, Van Tulder M, Barendse J, Knol D, Van Mechelen W, De Vet H. Intensive group training protocol versus guideline physiotherapy for patients with chronic low back pain: a randomised controlled trial. European Spine Journal 2008;17(9):1193-200. - PMC - PubMed
Vibe Fersum 2013 {published data only}
    1. Vibe Fersum K, O'Sullivan P, Skouen JS, Smith A, Kvale A. Efficacy of classification-based cognitive functional therapy in patients with non-specific chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Pain 2013;17(6):916-28. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Vibe Fersum K, Smith A, Kvale A, Skouen JS, O'Sullivan P. Cognitive functional therapy in patients with non-specific chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial 3-year follow-up. European Journal of Pain 2019;23(8):1416-24. - PubMed
Vincent 2014a {published data only}
    1. Vincent HK, George SZ, Seay AN, Vincent KR, Hurley RW. Resistance exercise, disability, and pain catastrophizing in obese adults with back pain. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2014;46(9):1693-701. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Vincent HK, Vincent KR, Seay AN, Conrad BP, Hurley RW, George SZ. Back strength predicts walking improvement in obese, older adults with chronic low back pain. PM&R: Journal of Injury, Function, & Rehabilitation 2014;6(5):418-26. - PMC - PubMed
Vollenbroek‐Hutten 2004 {published data only}
    1. Vollenbroek-Hutten MM, Hermens HJ, Wever D, Gorter M, Rinket J, Ijzerman MJ. Differences in outcome of a multidisciplinary treatment between subgroups of chronic low back pain patients defined using two multiaxial assessment instruments: the multidimensional pain inventory and lumbar dynamometry. Clinical Rehabilitation 2004;18(5):566-79. - PubMed
Wajswelner 2012 {published data only}
    1. Wajswelner H, Metcalf B, Bennell K. Clinical Pilates versus general exercise for chronic low back pain: randomized trial. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 2012;44(7):1197-205. - PubMed
Weifen 2013 {published data only}
    1. Weifen W, Muheremu A, Chaohui C, Md LW, Lei S. Effectiveness of tai chi practice for non-specific chronic low back pain on retired athletes: a randomized controlled study. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain 2013;21(1):37-45.
Weiner 2008 {published data only}
    1. Weiner DK, Perera S, Rudy TE, Glick RM, Shenoy S, Delitto A. Efficacy of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and therapeutic exercise for older adults with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2008;140(2):344-57. - PMC - PubMed
Williams 2005 {published data only}
    1. Williams KA, Petronis J, Smith D, Goodrich D, Wu J, Ravi N, et al. Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic low back pain. Pain 2005;115(1-2):107-17. - PubMed
Williams 2009 {published data only}
    1. Williams K, Abildso C, Steinberg L, Doyle E, Epstein B, Smith D, et al. Evaluation of the effectiveness and efficacy of Iyengar yoga therapy on chronic low back pain. Spine 2009;34(19):2066-76. - PMC - PubMed
Woods 2008 {published data only}
    1. Woods MP, Asmundson GJ. Evaluating the efficacy of graded in vivo exposure for the treatment of fear in patients with chronic back pain: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Pain 2008;136(3):271-80. - PubMed
Xueqiang 2012 {published data only}
    1. Xueqiang W, Jiejiao Z, Xia B, Jing L. Effect of core stability training on patients with chronic low back pain. HealthMED 2012;6(3):754-9.
Yelland 2004 {published data only}
    1. Yelland MJ, Glasziou PP, Bogduk N, Schluter PJ, McKernon M. Prolotherapy injections, saline injections, and exercises for chronic low-back pain: a randomized trial. Spine 2004;29(1):9-16. - PubMed
Yeung 2003 {published data only}
    1. Yeung CK, Leung MC, Chow DH. The use of electro-acupuncture in conjunction with exercise for the treatment of chronic low-back pain. Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine 2003;9(4):479-90. - PubMed
You 2014 {published data only}
    1. You JH, Kim SY, Oh DW, Chon SC. The effect of a novel core stabilization technique on managing patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled, experimenter-blinded study. Clinical Rehabilitation 2014;28(5):460-9. - PubMed
Yozbatiran 2004 {published data only}
    1. Yozbatiran N, Yildirim Y, Parlak B. Effects of fitness and aquafitness exercises on physical fitness in patients with chronic low back pain. Pain Clinic 2004;16(1):35-42.

References to studies excluded from this review

Akbari 2008 {published data only}
    1. Akbari A, Khorashadizadeh S, Abdi G. The effect of motor control exercise versus general exercise on lumbar local stabilizing muscles thickness: randomized controlled trial of patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2008;21(2):105-12.
Aleksiev 2014 {published data only}
    1. Aleksiev AR. Ten-year follow-up of strengthening versus flexibility exercises with or without abdominal bracing in recurrent low back pain. Spine 2014;39(13):997-1003. - PubMed
Ali 2013 {published data only}
    1. Ali S, Ali SM, Memon KN. Effectiveness of core stabilization exercises versus McKenzie's exercises in chronic lower back pain. Medical Forum Monthly 2013;24(12):82-5.
Anema 2007 {published data only}
    1. Anema JR, Steenstra IA, Bongers PM, De Vet HC, Knol DL, Loisel P, et al. Multidisciplinary rehabilitation for subacute low back pain: graded activity or workplace intervention or both? A randomized controlled trial. Spine 2007;32(3):291-8. - PubMed
Bergstrom 2012 {published data only}
    1. Bergstrom C, Jensen I, Hagberg J, Busch H, Bergstrom G. Effectiveness of different interventions using a psychosocial subgroup assignment in chronic neck and back pain patients: a 10-year follow-up. Disability & Rehabilitation 2012;34(2):110-8. - PubMed
Bhatnagar 2017 {published data only}
    1. Bhatnagar G, Sahu M. Comparison of pelvic floor exercises and conventional regimen in patients with chronic low back pain. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy & Occupational Therapy 2017;11(3):38-42.
Browder 2007 {published data only}
    1. Browder DA, Childs JD, Cleland JA, Fritz JM. Effectiveness of an extension-oriented treatment approach in a subgroup of subjects with low back pain: a randomized clinical trial. Physical Therapy 2007;87(12):1608-18. - PubMed
Celestini 2005 {published data only}
    1. Celestini M, Marchese A, Serenelli A, Graziani G. A randomized controlled trial on the efficacy of physical exercise in patients braced for instability of the lumbar spine. Europa Medicophysica 2005;41(3):223-31. - PubMed
Chatzitheodorou 2008 {published data only}
    1. Chatzitheodorou D, Mavromoustakos S, Milioti S. The effect of exercise on adrenocortical responsiveness of patients with chronic low back pain, controlled for psychological strain. Clinical Rehabilitation 2008;22(4):319-28. - PubMed
Cho 2014 {published data only}
    1. Cho HY, Kim EH, Kim J. Effects of the CORE exercise program on pain and active range of motion in patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2014;26(8):1237-40. - PMC - PubMed
Chul 2016 {published data only}
    1. Chul KI, Myoung HE, Hwang-Yong KI, Eun-Jeong KI. The effects of forced breathing exercise on the lumbar stabilization in chronic low back pain patients. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2016;28(12):3380-3. - PMC - PubMed
Demirel 2008 {published data only}
    1. Demirel R, Ucok K, Kavuncu V, Gecici O, Evcik D, Dundar U. Effects of balneotherapy with exercise in patients with low back pain. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2008;21(4):263-72.
Diaz‐Arribas 2015 {published data only}
    1. Diaz-Arribas MJ, Kovacs FM, Royuela A, Fernandez-Serrano M, Gutierrez-Fernandez L, San Martin-Pariente O, et al. Effectiveness of the Godelieve Denys-Struyf (GDS) method in patients with low back pain: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy 2015;95(3):319-36. - PubMed
Dillen 2016 {published data only}
    1. Dillen LR, Norton BJ, Sahrmann SA, Evanoff BA, Harris-Hayes M, Holtzman GW, et al. Efficacy of classification-specific treatment and adherence on outcomes in people with chronic low back pain. A one-year follow-up, prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial. Manual Therapy 2016;24:52-64. - PMC - PubMed
Dundar 2009 {published data only}
    1. Dundar U, Solak O, Yigit I, Evcik D, Kavuncu V. Clinical effectiveness of aquatic exercise to treat chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Spine 2009;34(14):1436-40. - PubMed
Ferreira 2016 {published data only}
    1. Ferreira G, Stieven F, Araujo F, Wiebusch M, Rosa C, Plentz R, et al. Neurodynamic treatment did not improve pain and disability at two weeks in patients with chronic nerve-related leg pain: a randomised trial. Journal of Physiotherapy 2016;62(4):197-202. - PubMed
Ford 2016 {published data only}
    1. Ford JJ, Hahne AJ, Surkitt LD, Chan AY, Richards MC, Slater SL, et al. Individualised physiotherapy as an adjunct to guideline-based advice for low back disorders in primary care: a randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2016;50(4):237-45. - PubMed
Froholdt 2012 {published data only}
    1. Froholdt A, Reikeraas O, Holm I, Keller A, Brox JI. No difference in 9-year outcome in CLBP patients randomized to lumbar fusion versus cognitive intervention and exercises. European Spine Journal 2012;21(12):2531-8. - PMC - PubMed
Galantino 2004 {published data only}
    1. Galantino ML, Bzdewka TM, Eissler-Russo JL, Holbrook ML, Mogck EP, Geigle P, et al. The impact of modified hatha yoga on chronic low back pain: a pilot study. Alternative Therapies In Health And Medicine 2004;10(2):56-9. - PubMed
Gao 2006 {published data only}
    1. Gao MX, Liu XY, Zhen P, Wang P, Wang XM, Xue Y. Evaluation of the efficacy of exercise program in the remission of low back pain in manage tank soldiers. Chinese Journal of Clinical Rehabilitation 2006;10(8):32-4.
Haufe 2017 {published data only}
    1. Haufe S, Wiechmann K, Stein L, Kuck M, Smith A, Meineke S, et al. Low-dose, non-supervised, health insurance initiated exercise for the treatment and prevention of chronic low back pain in employees. Results from a randomized controlled trial. PLOS One 2017;12(6):e0178585. - PMC - PubMed
Hosseinifar 2013 {published data only}
    1. Hosseinifar M, Akbari M, Behtash H, Amiri M, Sarrafzadeh J. The effects of stabilization and McKenzie exercises on transverse abdominis and multifidus muscle thickness, pain, and disability: a randomized controlled trial in nonspecific chronic low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2013;25(12):1541-5. - PMC - PubMed
Jeong 2015 {published data only}
    1. Jeong UC, Sim JH, Kim CY, Hwang-Bo G, Nam CW. The effects of gluteus muscle strengthening exercise and lumbar stabilization exercise on lumbar muscle strength and balance in chronic low back pain patients. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2015;27(12):3813-6. - PMC - PubMed
Jeong 2016 {published data only}
    1. Jeong UC, Kim CY, Park YH, Hwang-Bo G, Nam CW. The effects of self-mobilization techniques for the sciatic nerves on physical functions and health of low back pain patients with lower limb radiating pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2016;28(1):46-50. - PMC - PubMed
Ju 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ju T, Choi W, Yang Y, Lee S. Effects of hip mobilization on pain and function for chronic low back pain individuals with limited range of hip joint motion. Indian Journal of Science and Technology 2015;8(26):345–8.
Ju‐Hyun 2017 {published data only}
    1. Ju-Hyun L, Tae-Ho K. The treatment effect of hamstring stretching and nerve mobilization for patients with radicular lower back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2017;29(9):1578-82. - PMC - PubMed
Kachanathu 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kachanathu SJ, Zakaria AR, Sahni A, Jaiswal P. Chronic low back pain in fast bowlers a comparative study of core spinal stabilization and conventional exercises. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2012;24(9):821-5.
Kaeding 2017 {published data only}
    1. Kaeding T, Karch A, Schwarz R, Flor T, Wittke T, Kuck M, et al. Whole-body vibration training as a workplace-based sports activity for employees with chronic low-back pain. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 2017;27(12):2027-39. - PubMed
Kamali 2014 {published data only}
    1. Kamali F, Panahi F, Ebrahimi S, Abbasi L. Comparison between massage and routine physical therapy in women with sub acute and chronic nonspecific low back pain. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2014;27(4):475. - PubMed
Kamali 2018 {published data only}
    1. Kamali F, Zamanlou M, Ghanbari A, Alipour A, Bervis S. Comparison of manipulation and stabilization exercises in patients with sacroiliac joint dysfunction patients: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 2018;23(1):177-82. - PubMed
Kang 2016 {published data only}
    1. Jeong-Il K, Dae-Keun J, Hyun C. Effect of exhalation exercise on trunk muscle activity and Oswestry Disability Index of patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2016;28(6):1738-42. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kim JH, Kim YE, Bae SH, Kim KY. The effect of the neurac sling exercise on postural balance adjustment and muscular response patterns in chronic low back pain patients. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2013;25(8):1015-9. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2014 {published data only}
    1. Kim SS, Min WK, Kim JH, Lee BH. The effects of VR-based Wii fit yoga on physical function in middle-aged female LPB patients. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2014;26(4):549-52. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2015b {published data only}
    1. Kim JY, Choi WJ, Seo TH. Effect of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation integration pattern and swiss ball training on pain and balance in elderly patients with chronic back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2015;27(10):3237-40. - PMC - PubMed
Ko 2018 {published data only}
    1. Ko KJ, Ha GC, Yook YS, Kang SJ. Effects of 12-week lumbar stabilization exercise and sling exercise on lumbosacral region angle, lumbar muscle strength, and pain scale of patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2018;30(1):18-22. - PMC - PubMed
Konstantinou 2007 {published data only}
    1. Konstantinou K, Foster N, Rushton A, Baxter D, Wright C, Breen A. Flexion mobilizations with movement techniques: the immediate effects on range of movement and pain in subjects with low back pain. Journal of Manipulative & Physiological Therapeutics 2007;30(3):178-85. - PubMed
Kumar 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kumar SP. Efficacy of segmental stabilization exercise for lumbar segmental instability in patients with mechanical low back pain: a randomized placebo controlled crossover study. North American Journal of Medical Sciences 2011;3(10):461. - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2014a {published data only}
    1. Lee C, Hwangbo K, Lee IS. The effects of combination patterns of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and ball exercise on pain and muscle activity of chronic low back pain patients. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2014;26(1):93-6. - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2014b {published data only}
    1. Lee CW, Hyun J, Kim SG. Influence of Pilates mat and apparatus exercises on pain and balance of business women with chronic low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2014;26(4):475-7. - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2016b {published data only}
    1. Lee SB, Cho WJ. The effect of sling exercise on sagittal lumbosacral angle and intervertebral disc area of chronic low back pain patients. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation 2016;12(5):471-5. - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2017 {published data only}
    1. Lee JH. Effects of the centrifugal contraction exercise of the rectus abdominis accompanied with the isometric exercise of the transversus abdominis on pain and balance of lower back pain patients. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2017;29(8):1405-8. - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2018 {published data only}
    1. Lee DK, Kim YN, Chi-Bok P, Mi-Sook P. The effect of actively induced vibration using shoulder joint on pain and dysfunction in patients with low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2018;30(1):23-6. - PMC - PubMed
Maciaszek 2016 {published data only}
    1. Maciaszek J, Skrypnik D, Ratajczak M, Stemplewski R, Osinski W, Bogdanski P, et al. Two aerobic exercise programs in management of back pain among middle-aged obese women: a randomized controlled study. Human Movement 2016;17(2):72-9.
Majiwala 2017 {published data only}
    1. Majiwala BA, Warude TA, Pawar A. Effect of isometric and isotonic exercise training on core muscle in patients with non-specific low back pain. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 2017;10(6):308-11.
Masse‐Alarie 2017 {published data only}
    1. Masse-Alarie H, Beaulieu LD, Preuss R, Schneider C. Repetitive peripheral magnetic neurostimulation of multifidus muscles combined with motor training influences spine motor control and chronic low back pain. Clinical Neurophysiology 2017;128(3):442-53. - PubMed
Mirovsky 2006 {published data only}
    1. Mirovsky Y, Grober A, Blankstein A, Stabholz L. The effect of ambulatory lumbar traction combined with treadmill on patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2006;19(2-3):73-8.
Moon 2017 {published data only}
    1. Moon JH, Jung JH, Won YS, Cho HY. Immediate effects of Graston Technique on hamstring muscle extensibility and pain intensity in patients with nonspecific low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2017;29(2):224-7. - PMC - PubMed
Nambi 2014 {published data only}
    1. Nambi GS, Inbasekaran D, Khuman R, Devi S, Shanmugananth, Jagannathan K. Changes in pain intensity and health related quality of life with Iyengar yoga in nonspecific chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled study. International Journal of Yoga 2014;7(1):48-53. - PMC - PubMed
Nazzal 2013 {published data only}
    1. Nazzal ME, Saadah MA, Saadah LM, Al-Omari MA, Al-Oudat ZA, Nazzal MS, et al. Management options of chronic low back pain. A randomized blinded clinical trial. Neurosciences 2013;18(2):152-9. - PubMed
Park 2013 {published data only}
    1. Park JH, Lee SH, Ko DS. The effects of the Nintendo Wii exercise program on chronic work-related low back pain in industrial workers. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2013;25(8):985-8. - PMC - PubMed
Park 2019 {published data only}
    1. Park SH, Lee MM. Effects of a progressive stabilization exercise program using respiratory resistance for patients with lumbar instability: a randomized controlled trial. Medical Science Monitor 2019;25:1740-8. - PMC - PubMed
Paungmali 2018 {published data only}
    1. Paungmali A, Joseph LH, Punturee K, Sitilertpisan P, Pirunsan U, Uthaikhup S. Immediate effects of core stabilization exercise on β-endorphin and cortisol levels among patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain: a randomized crossover design. Journal of Manipulative & Physiological Therapeutics 2018;41(3):181-8. - PubMed
Pengel 2007 {published data only}
    1. Pengel LH, Refshauge KM, Maher CG, Nicholas MK, Herbert RD, McNair P. Physiotherapist-directed exercise, advice, or both for subacute low back pain: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2007;146(11):787-96. - PubMed
Rasmussen 2015 {published data only}
    1. Rasmussen CDN, Holtermann A, Bay H, Sogaard K, Jorgensen MB. A multifaceted workplace intervention for low back pain in nurses' aides: a pragmatic stepped wedge cluster randomised controlled trial. Pain 2015;156(9):1786-94. - PMC - PubMed
Rhon 2018 {published data only}
    1. Rhon DA, Miller RB, Fritz JM. Effectiveness and downstream healthcare utilization for patients that received early physical therapy versus usual care for low back pain: a randomized clinical trial. Spine 2018;43(19):1313-21. - PubMed
Schaller 2017 {published data only}
    1. Schaller A, Petrowski K, Pfoertner TK, Froboese I. Effectiveness of a theory-based multicomponent intervention (Movement Coaching) on the promotion of total and domain-specific physical activity: a randomised controlled trial in low back pain patients. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 2017;18:1-14. - PMC - PubMed
Schiltenwolf 2006 {published data only}
    1. Schiltenwolf M, Buchner M, Heindl B, Von Reumont J, Muller A, Eich W. Comparison of a biopsychosocial therapy (BT) with a conventional biomedical therapy (MT) of subacute low back pain in the first episode of sick leave: a randomized controlled trial. European Spine Journal 2006;15(7):1083-92. - PMC - PubMed
Sjogren 2006b {published data only}
    1. Sjogren T, Nissinen KJ, Jarvenpaa SK, Ojanen MT, Vanharanta H, Malkia EA. Effects of a workplace physical exercise intervention on the intensity of low back symptoms in office workers: a cluster randomized controlled cross-over design. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2006;19(1):13-24.
Suni 2006 {published data only}
    1. Suni J, Rinne M, Natri A, Statistisian MP, Parkkari J, Alaranta H. Control of the lumbar neutral zone decreases low back pain and improves self-evaluated work ability: a 12-month randomized controlled study. Spine 2006;31(18):E611-20. - PubMed
Suni 2017 {published data only}
    1. Suni JH, Rinne M, Tokola K, Manttari A, Vasankari T. Effectiveness of a standardised exercise programme for recurrent neck and low back pain: a multicentre, randomised, two-arm, parallel group trial across 34 fitness clubs in Finland. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 2017;3(1):e000233. - PMC - PubMed
Tang 2016 {published data only}
    1. Tang S, Qian X, Zhang Y, Liu Y. Treating low back pain resulted from lumbar degenerative instability using Chinese Tuina combined with core stability exercises: a randomized controlled trial. Complementary Therapies in Medicine 2016;25:45-50. - PubMed
Telles 2016 {published data only}
    1. Telles S, Bhardwaj AK, Gupta RK, Sharma SK, Monro R, Balkrishna A. A randomized controlled trial to assess pain and magnetic resonance imaging-based (MRI-based) structural spine changes in low back pain patients after yoga practice. Medical Science Monitor 2016;22:3228-47. - PMC - PubMed
Tsauo 2009 {published data only}
    1. Tsauo JY, Chen WH, Liang HW, Jang Y. The effectiveness of a functional training programme for patients with chronic low back pain: a pilot study. Disability and Rehabilitation 2009;31(13):1100-6. - PubMed
Wand 2004 {published data only}
    1. Wand BM, Bird C, McAuley JH, Dore CJ, MacDowell M, De Souza LH. Early intervention for the management of acute low back pain: a single-blind randomized controlled trial of biopsychosocial education, manual therapy, and exercise. Spine 2004;29(21):2350-6. - PubMed
Waqqar 2016 {published data only}
    1. Waqqar S, Shakil-Ur-Rehman S, Ahmad S. McKenzie treatment versus mulligan sustained natural apophyseal glides for chronic mechanical low back pain. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences 2016;32(2):476-9. - PMC - PubMed
Whitfill 2010 {published data only}
    1. Whitfill T, Haggard R, Bierner SM, Pransky G, Hassett RG, Gatchel RJ. Early intervention options for acute low back pain patients: a randomized clinical trial with one-year follow-up outcomes. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation 2010;20(2):256-63. - PubMed
Woo 2016 {published data only}
    1. Woo SD, Kim TH. The effects of lumbar stabilization exercise with thoracic extension exercise on lumbosacral alignment and the low back pain disability index in patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2016;28(2):680-4. - PMC - PubMed
Wright 2005 {published data only}
    1. Wright A, Lloyd-Davies A, Williams S, Ellis R, Strike P. Individual active treatment combined with group exercise for acute and subacute low back pain. Spine 2005;30(11):1235-41. - PubMed
Wu 2004 {published data only}
    1. Wu JX, Wang B. Early intervention of aerobic exercise to rehabilitation of non-specific low back pain. Chinese Journal of Clinical Rehabilitation 2004;8(26):5718-20.
Yilmaz Yelvar 2017 {published data only}
    1. Yilmaz Yelvar GD, Cirak Y, Dalkilinc M, Parlak Demir Y, Guner Z, Boydak A. Is physiotherapy integrated virtual walking effective on pain, function, and kinesiophobia in patients with non-specific low-back pain? Randomised controlled trial. European Spine Journal 2017;26(2):538-45. - PubMed
Yoo 2012 {published data only}
    1. Yoo YD, Lee YS. The effect of core stabilization exercises using a sling on pain and muscle strength of patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2012;24(8):671-4.
Yoon 2013 {published data only}
    1. Yoon KS, Park SD. The effects of ankle mobilization and active stretching on the difference of weight-bearing distribution, low back pain and flexibility in pronated-foots subjects. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation 2013;9(2):292. - PMC - PubMed
Yu 2016 {published data only}
    1. Yu SH, Sim YH, Kim MH, Bang JH, Son KH, Kim JW, et al. The effect of abdominal drawing-in exercise and myofascial release on pain, flexibility, and balance of elderly females. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2016;28(10):2812-5. - PMC - PubMed
Zahin 2018 {published data only}
    1. Zahin N, Karahan AY, Albayrak Z. Effectiveness of physical therapy and exercise on pain and functional status in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized-controlled trial. Turkish Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 2018;64(1):52-8. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Abadi 2019 {published data only}
    1. Abadi FH, Sankaravel M, Zainuddin FF, Elumalai G, Razli AI. The effect of aquatic exercise program on low-back pain disability in obese women. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation 2019;15(6):855-60. - PMC - PubMed
Ahmadi 2020 {published data only}
    1. Ahmadi H, Adib H, Selk-Ghaffari M, Shafizad M, Moradi S, Madani Z, et al. Comparison of the effects of the Feldenkrais method versus core stability exercise in the management of chronic low back pain: a randomised control trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2020;34(12):1449-57. - PubMed
Ahmadizadeh 2019 {published data only}
    1. Ahmadizadeh Z, Ehsani F, Samaei SA, Mirmohamadkhani M. The effect of stabilization exercises along with self-care training on transverse abdominal activity, pain, and disability in mothers with low back pain having children with CP: a RCT. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 2019;99(2):156-60. - PubMed
Ak 2016 {published data only}
    1. Ak A, Sra A, Cs O. Comparative efficacy of core stabilization exercise and Pilates exercise on patients with nonspecific chronic low back pain. Romanian Journal of Physical Therapy 2016;21(38):14-22.
Akodu 2020 {published data only}
    1. Akodu AK, Odunfa KS. Effects of core stabilization and McKenzie back extension exercises on pain, disability and insomnia in patients with non-specific chronic low back pain. Sports Medicine Journal 2020;16(1):3190-6.
Alfuth 2016 {published data only}
    1. Alfuth M, Cornely D. Chronic low back pain: comparison of mobilization and core stability exercises. Orthopade 2016;45(7):579-90. - PubMed
Alikhajeh 2020 {published data only}
    1. Alikhajeh Y, Barabadi E, Mohammad Rahimi GR. A comparison of 6 weeks of aquatic exercise and kinesio taping in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 2021;30:37-42. - PubMed
Almhdawi 2020 {published data only}
    1. Almhdawi KA, Obeidat DS, Kanaan SF, Oteir AO, Mansour ZM, Alrabbaei H. Efficacy of an innovative smartphone application for office workers with chronic non-specific low back pain: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2020;34(10):1282-91. - PubMed
Altinbilek 2020 {published data only}
    1. Altinbilek T, Murat S. A comparison of application frequency of physical therapy modalities in patients with chronic mechanical low back pain. Turkish Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2020;66(2):201-9. - PMC - PubMed
Amorim 2019 {published data only}
    1. Amorim AB, Pappas E, Simic M, Ferreira ML, Jennings M, Tiedemann A, et al. Integrating mobile-health, health coaching, and physical activity to reduce the burden of chronic low back pain trial (IMPACT): a pilot randomised controlled trial. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 2019;20(1):71-85. - PMC - PubMed
Ansari 2020 {published data only}
    1. Ansari S, Elmieh A, Alipour A. The effect of aquatic exercise on functional disability, flexibility and function of trunk muscles in postmenopausal women with chronic non-specific low back pain: randomized controlled trial. Science and Sports 2021;36(3):e103-10.
Areeudomwong 2018 {published data only}
    1. Areeudomwong P, Buttagat V. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation training improves pain-related and balance outcomes in working-age patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy 2018;23(5):428-36. - PMC - PubMed
Areeudomwong 2019 {published data only}
    1. Areeudomwong P, Buttagat V. Comparison of core stabilisation exercise and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation training on pain-related and neuromuscular response outcomes for chronic low back pain: a randomised controlled trial. Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences 2019;26(6):77-89. - PMC - PubMed
Barbosa 2013 {published data only}
    1. Barbosa Silva DK, Murata E, Freitas CD. Comparação do método Pilates com e sem a estabilização segmentar na dor lombar crónica. Revista Terapia Manual 2013;11(51):90-4.
Barni 2018 {published data only}
    1. Barni L, Calabretta L, Lepori L, Pasquetti P, Gulisano M, Freddolini M. Does an aerobic exercise improve outcomes in older sedentary nonspecific low back pain subjects? A randomized controlled study. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation 2018;34(2):88-94.
Barradas 2015 {published data only}
    1. Barradas LPF, Da Silva LFBP, De Sousa RC, Matos LKBL, Carvalho AFM. The effects of the exercises of segmental stabilization in low back pain. Manual Therapy, Posturology & Rehabilitation Journal 2015;13:1-6.
Batool 2019 {published data only}
    1. Batool F, Afzal W, Ahmad A, Gilani SA. Effectiveness of core stability with and without neck extension on pain intensity and functional disability in patients with chronic low back pain. Rawal Medical Journal 2019;44(4):797‐800.
Bello 2018 {published data only}
    1. Bello B, Adeniyi AF. Effects of lumbar stabilisation and treadmill exercise on function in patients with chronic mechanical low back pain. International Journal of Therapy & Rehabilitation 2018;25(9):493-9.
Brodsky 2019 {published data only}
    1. Brodsky M, Hansen A, Bjerke W. Randomized pilot trial for a community-based group stretching exercise program for chronic low back pain. Global Advances in Health & Medicine 2019;8:1-7. - PMC - PubMed
Bruehl 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bruehl S, Burns JW, Koltyn K, Gupta R, Buvanendran A, Edwards D, et al. Are endogenous opioid mechanisms involved in the effects of aerobic exercise training on chronic low back pain? A randomized controlled trial. Pain 2020;161(12):2887-97. - PMC - PubMed
Buttagat 2019 {published data only}
    1. Buttagat V, Techakhot P, Wiriya W, Mueller M, Areeudomwong P. Effectiveness of traditional Thai self-massage combined with stretching exercises for the treatment of patients with chronic non-specific low back pain: a single-blinded randomized controlled trial. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 2019;24(1):19-24. - PubMed
Calatayud 2020 {published data only}
    1. Calatayud J, Guzman-Gonzalez B, Andersen LL, Cruz-Montecinos C, Morell MT, Roldan R, et al. Effectiveness of a group-based progressive strength training in primary care to improve the recurrence of low back pain exacerbations and function: a randomised trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020;17(22):8326-40. - PMC - PubMed
Canaway 2018 {published data only}
    1. Canaway A, Pincus T, Underwood M, Shapiro Y, Chodick G, Ben-Ami N. Is an enhanced behaviour change intervention cost-effective compared with physiotherapy for patients with chronic low back pain? Results from a multicentre trial in Israel. British Medical Journal Open 2018;8(4):1-8. - PMC - PubMed
Cavalcanti 2020 {published data only}
    1. Cavalcanti IF, Antonino GB, Do Monte-Silva KK, Guerino MR, Ferreira APDL, De Araújo MDGR. Global postural re-education in non-specific neck and low back pain treatment: a pilot study. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2020;33(5):823-8. - PubMed
Chen 2018 {published data only}
    1. Chen J, Wang C. Core stability training improves back muscle endurance and increases peak values of isokinetic strength of back muscles. Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research 2018;22(36):5797-802.
Chhabra 2018 {published data only}
    1. Chhabra HS, Sharma S, Verma S. Smartphone app in self-management of chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. European Spine Journal 2018;27(11):2862-74. - PubMed
Cimarras‐Otal 2020 {published data only}
    1. Cimarras-Otal C, Marcen-Cinca N, Rabal-Pelay J, Lacarcel-Tejero B, Alcazar-Crevillen A, Villalba-Ruete JA, et al. Adapted exercises versus general exercise recommendations on chronic low back pain in industrial workers: a randomized control pilot study. Work 2020;67(3):733-40. - PubMed
Cox 2010 {published data only}
    1. Cox H, Tilbrook H, Aplin J, Semlyen A, Torgerson D, Trewhela A, et al. A randomised controlled trial of yoga for the treatment of chronic low back pain: results of a pilot study. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice 2010;16(4):187-93. - PubMed
Das 2019 {published data only}
    1. Das H, Jayaseelan V, Manikandanesan S, Sharma D, Rehman T. Effectiveness of multipurpose health-worker-led exercise therapy on pain reduction among patients with chronic nonspecific low backache in primary health-care setting: a randomized control trial. Journal of Family Medicine & Primary Care 2019;8(1):199-202. - PMC - PubMed
Da Silva 2014 {published data only}
    1. Da Silva TM, Silva NN, E Souza Rocha SH, Marques de Oliveira D, Karina Monte-Silva K, Silva Tenório A, et al. Back school program for back pain: education or physical exercise? Conscientiae Saude 2014;13(4):506-15.
Daulat 2014 {published data only}
    1. Daulat A, Goodlad E. A phase II pilot study comparing a home total body strengthening programme plus manual therapy with a standard physiotherapy exercise regimen plus manual therapy in the management of chronic low back pain. International Musculoskeletal Medicine 2014;36(3):87-95.
Daulat 2016 {published data only}
    1. Daulat A. A pragmatic randomized controlled trial to compare a novel group physiotherapy programme with a standard group exercise programme for managing chronic low back pain in primary care. International Musculoskeletal Medicine 2016;38(3/4):97-108.
De Giogrio 2018 {published data only}
    1. De Giorgio A, Padulo J, Kuvazizi G. Effectiveness of yoga combined with back school program on anxiety, kinesiophobia and pain in people with non-specific chronic low back pain: a prospective randomized trial. Muscles, Ligaments & Tendons Journal 2018;8(1):104-12.
Delicia 2019 {published data only}
    1. Delicia Roshini P, Antony Leo Aseer P. Motor control training in chronic low back pain. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 2019;13(4):YC01-5.
Del Pozo 2011 {published data only}
    1. Del Pozo-Cruz B, Hernandez Mocholi MA, Adsuar JC, Parraca JA, Muro I, Gusi N. Effects of whole body vibration therapy on main outcome measures for chronic non-specific low back pain: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 2011;43(8):689-94. - PubMed
Demirel 2019 {published data only}
    1. Demirel A, Oz M, Ozel YA, Cetin H, Ulger O. Stabilization exercise versus yoga exercise in non-specific low back pain: pain, disability, quality of life, performance: a randomized controlled trial. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice 2019;35:102-8. - PubMed
Dimer 2019 {published data only}
    1. Dimer LR, Santos SM, Steffen EA, Matos SL, Daitx RB, Döhnert MB. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation associated with core stability exercises in nonspecific postural low back pain: a randomized clinical trial. Muscles, Ligaments & Tendons Journal 2019;9(3):446-56.
Dineshkumar 2015 {published data only}
    1. Dineshkumar SK, Dibyendunarayan B, Ramalingam AT. Effect of abdominal drawing-in maneuver along with resisted ankle dorsi-flexion to activate transverse abdominis muscle in chronic non-specific low back pain. Romanian Journal of Physical Therapy 2015;21(36):40-7.
Ehsani 2019 {published data only}
    1. Ehsani F, Hedayati R, Bagheri R, Jaberzadeh S. The effects of stabilization exercise on the thickness of lateral abdominal muscles during standing tasks in women with chronic low back pain: a randomized triple-blinded clinical trial study. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 2019;29(7):942-51. - PubMed
Fang 2015 {published data only}
    1. Fang L, Yan J. The effect of Wuqinxi Exercise on mechanics characteristic of abdominal and back muscles and pain in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain. Shanghai Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 2015;9:49-53.
Fatoye 2020 {published data only}
    1. Fatoye F, Gebrye T, Fatoye C, Mbada CE, Olaoye MI, Odole AC, et al. The clinical and cost-effectiveness of telerehabilitation for people with nonspecific chronic low back pain: randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Iinternet Research mHealth and uHealth 2020;8(6):e15375. - PMC - PubMed
Ferreira 2017 {published data only}
    1. Ferreira M, Melo L, Cabral K, Nascimento L, Guerino M, Araujo M. Maitland in chronic lumbar pain of young adults improves pain and functionality. Manual Therapy, Posturology & Rehabilitation Journal 2017;15:1-7.
França 2019 {published data only}
    1. França FJR, Burke TN, Magalhães MO, Comachio J, Carvalho Silva APM, Marques AP, et al. Motor control training compared with transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in patients with disc herniation with associated radiculopathy: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 2019;98(3):207-14. - PubMed
Galan‐Martin 2020 {published data only}
    1. Galan-Martin MA, Montero-Cuadrado F, Lluch-Girbes E, Coca-Lopez MC, Mayo-Iscar A, Cuesta-Vargas A. Pain neuroscience education and physical therapeutic exercise for patients with chronic spinal pain in Spanish physiotherapy primary care: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Medicine 2020;9(4):1201-23. - PMC - PubMed
Gao 2018 {published data only}
    1. Gao F, Yuan S, Zheng S. Effect observation of Baduanjin training on chronic nonspecific low back pain. Rehabilitation Medicine 2018;04:1-6.
Gardner 2019 {published data only}
    1. Gardner T, Refshauge K, McAuley J, Hubscher M, Goodall S, Smith L. Combined education and patient-led goal setting intervention reduced chronic low back pain disability and intensity at 12 months: a randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2019;53(22):1424-31. - PubMed
Ghasemi 2020 {published data only}
    1. Ghasemi C, Amiri A, Sarrafzadeh J, Dadgoo M, Maroufi N. Comparison of the effects of craniosacral therapy, muscle energy technique, and sensorimotor training on non-specific chronic low back pain. Anaesthesia, Pain and Intensive Care 2020;24(5):532-43.
Gholami 2019 {published data only}
    1. Gholami Borujeni B, Yalfani A. Reduction of postural sway in athletes with chronic low back pain through eight weeks of inspiratory muscle training: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Biomechanics 2019;69:215-20. - PubMed
Gohil 2018 {published data only}
    1. Gohil D, Samuel R. The efficacy of a lumbar strengthening program in lumbar spine derangement syndrome 1. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences 2018;9(1):B232-7.
Groessl 2020 {published data only}
    1. Groessl EJ, Liu L, Schmalzl L, Chang DG, McCarthy A, Chun WI, et al. Secondary outcomes from a randomized controlled trial of yoga for veterans with chronic low-back pain. International Journal of Yoga Therapy 2020;30(1):69-76. - PMC - PubMed
Gupta 2019 {published data only}
    1. Gupta P, Mohanty PP, Pattnaik M. The effectiveness of aerobic exercise program for improving functional performance and quality of life in chronic low back pain. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy & Occupational Therapy 2019;13(2):155-60.
Harper 2019 {published data only}
    1. Harper B, Steinbeck L, Aron A. Fascial manipulation vs. standard physical therapy practice for low back pain diagnoses: a pragmatic study. Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies 2019;23(1):115-21. - PubMed
Heidari 2018 {published data only}
    1. Heidari RS, Sahebozamani M, Karimi AF. Comparison of the effects of 8 weeks of core stability exercise on ball and sling exercise on the quality of life and pain in the female with non-specific chronic low back pain (NSLBP). Journal of Zanjan University of Medical Sciences and Health Services 2018;26(117):44-56.
Hosseinifar 2017 {published data only}
    1. Hosseinifar M, Ghiasi F, Akbari A, Ghorbani M. The effect of stabilization exercises on lumbar lordosis in patients with low back pain. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Public Health 2017;10(6):1779-84.
Ibrahim 2018 {published data only}
    1. Ibrahim AA, Akindele MO, Ganiyu SO. Motor control exercise and patient education program for low resource rural community dwelling adults with chronic low back pain: a pilot randomized clinical trial. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation 2018;14(5):851-63. - PMC - PubMed
Jahantiqh 2018 {published data only}
    1. Jahantiqh F, Abdollahimohammad A, Firouzkouhi M, Ebrahiminejadm V. Effects of reiki versus physiotherapy on relieving lower back pain and improving activities daily living of patients with intervertebral disc hernia. Journal of Evidence-based Integrative Medicine 2018;23:1-6. - PMC - PubMed
Jinnouchi 2020 {published data only}
    1. Jinnouchi H, Matsudaira K, Kitamura A, Kakihana H, Oka H, Hayama-Terada M, et al. Effects of brief self-exercise education on the management of chronic low back pain: a community-based, randomized, parallel-group pragmatic trial. Modern Rheumatology 2021;31(4):890-8. - PubMed
Joseph 2018 {published data only}
    1. Joseph LH, Hancharoenkul B, Sitilertpisan P, Pirunsan U, Paungmali A. Comparison of effects between core stability training and sports massage therapy among elite weightlifters with chronic non-specific low back pain: a randomized cross-over study. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine 2018;9(1):1-8.
Kamali 2019 {published data only}
    1. Kamali F, Zamanlou M, Ghanbari A, Alipour A, Bervis S. Comparison of manipulation and stabilization exercises in patients with sacroiliac joint dysfunction patients: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies 2019;23(1):177-82. - PubMed
Kang 2018 {published data only}
    1. Kang TW, Lee JH, Park DH, Cynn HS. Effect of 6-week lumbar stabilization exercise performed on stable versus unstable surfaces in automobile assembly workers with mechanical chronic low back pain. Work 2018;60(3):445-54. - PubMed
Karimzadeh 2016 {published data only}
    1. Karimzadeh F, Letafatkar A, Ghasemi G. The effect of 8 weeks core stabilization exercises on pain and functional disability induced by low back pain in the mothers of children with cerebral palsy. Scientific Journal of Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences 2016;21(3):34-44.
Kell 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kell RT, Risi AD, Barden JM. The response of persons with chronic nonspecific low back pain to three different volumes of periodized musculoskeletal rehabilitation. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 2011;25(4):1052-64. - PubMed
Khandhar 2020 {published data only}
    1. Khandhar RY, Sathya P, Paul J. Comparative effect of trunk balance exercise over conventional back care exercise in patients with chronic mechanical low back pain. Indian Journal of Public Health Research and Development 2020;11(6):786-91.
Kim 2018b {published data only}
    1. Kim H, Kwon BS, Park JW, Lee A, Nam CW, Park T, et al. Effect of whole body horizontal vibration exercise in chronic low back pain patients: vertical versus horizontal vibration exercise. Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine 2018;42(6):804-13. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2019 {published data only}
    1. Kim T, Lee J, Oh S, Kim S, Yoon BC. Effectiveness of simulated horseback riding for chronic low back pain patients: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 2019;29(2):179-85. - PubMed
Kim 2020 {published data only}
    1. Kim B, Yim J. Core stability and hip exercises improve physical function and activity in patients with non-specific low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine 2020;251(3):193-206. - PubMed
Kim 2020a {published data only}
    1. Kim S, Jee Y. Effects of 3D moving platform exercise on physiological parameters and pain in patients with chronic low back pain. Medicina 2020;56(7):351-66. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2020b {published data only}
    1. Kim SH, Park KN, Kwon OY. Classification-specific treatment improves pain, disability, fear-avoidance beliefs, and erector spinae muscle activity during walking in patients with low back pain exhibiting lumbar extension-rotation pattern: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics 2020;43(2):123-33. - PubMed
Krishna 2020 {published data only}
    1. Krishna D, Deepeshwar S, Devi B. Yoga-based relaxation technique facilitates sustained attention in patients with low back pain: a pilot study. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine 2020;34(3):11-7. - PubMed
Kumar 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kumar A, Gupta M, Katyal T. Effect of trunk muscles stabilization exercises and general exercises on pain in recurrent non specific low back ache. International Research Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences 2013;1(1):23-6.
Kuvacic 2018 {published data only}
    1. Kuvacic G, Fratini P, Padulo J, Antonio DI, De Giorgio A. Effectiveness of yoga and educational intervention on disability, anxiety, depression, and pain in people with CLBP: a randomized controlled trial. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice 2018;31:262-7. - PubMed
Kwon 2020 {published data only}
    1. Kwon SH, Oh SJ, Kim DH. The effects of lumbar stabilization exercise on transversus abdominis muscle activation capacity and function in low back pain patients. Isokinetics and Exercise Science 2020;28(2):147-52.
Leeuw 2008 {published data only}
    1. Leeuw M, Goossens ME, Van Breukelen GJ, De Jong JR, Heuts PH, Smeets RJ, et al. Exposure in vivo versus operant graded activity in chronic low back pain patients: results of a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2008;138(1):192-207. - PubMed
Leonard 2018 {published data only}
    1. Joseph LH, Benjamaporn H, Patraporn S, Ubon P, Aatit P. Effects of massage as a combination therapy with lumbopelvic stability exercises as compared to standard massage therapy in low back pain: a randomized cross-over study. International Journal of Therapeutic Massage & Bodywork 2018;11(4):16-22. - PMC - PubMed
Li 2015 {published data only}
    1. Li L, Feng Z. Clinical observation of treating chronic nonspecific low back pain with Baduanjin combining sling exercise therapy. Rheumatology & Arthritis 2015;4:16-9.
Li 2017 {published data only}
    1. Li H, Zhang H, Liu S, Wang Y, Gai D, Lu Q, et al. Rehabilitation effect of exercise with soft tissue manipulation in patients with lumbar muscle strain. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice 2017;20(5):629-33. - PubMed
Lima 2018 {published data only}
    1. Lima VP, Nunes RAM, Da Silva JB, Paz GA, Jesus M, De Castro JPB, et al. Pain perception and low back pain functional disability after a 10-week core and mobility training program: a pilot study. Journal of Back & Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2018;31(4):637-43. - PubMed
Liu 2018 {published data only}
    1. Liu J, Zhao W, Yuan Y. Effects of Tai Chi on the event-related potential of patients with chronic non-specific low back pain. Chinese Journal of Sports Medicine 2018;10:826-32.
Liu 2019 {published data only}
    1. Liu J, Yeung A, Xiao T, Tian X, Kong Z, Zou L, et al. Chen-style tai chi for individuals (aged 50 years old or above) with chronic non-specific low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Environmental Research & Public Health 2019;16(3):517-26. - PMC - PubMed
Madadi‐Shad 2020 {published data only}
    1. Madadi-Shad M, Jafarnezhadgero AA, Sheikhalizade H, Dionisio VC. Effect of a corrective exercise program on gait kinetics and muscle activities in older adults with both low back pain and pronated feet: a double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Gait & Posture 2020;76:339-45. - PubMed
Mataran‐Penarrocha 2020 {published data only}
    1. Mataran-Penarrocha GA, Lara Palomo IC, Antequera Soler E, Gil-Martinez E, Fernandez-Sanchez M, Aguilar-Ferrandiz ME, et al. Comparison of efficacy of a supervised versus non-supervised physical therapy exercise program on the pain, functionality and quality of life of patients with non-specific chronic low-back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2020;34(7):948-59. - PubMed
Matheve 2020 {published data only}
    1. Matheve T, Bogaerts K, Timmermans A. Virtual reality distraction induces hypoalgesia in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation 2020;17(1):55. - PMC - PubMed
Matos 2020 {published data only}
    1. Matos FP, Dantas EHM, Oliveira FB, Castro JBP, Conceicao M, Nunes RAM, et al. Analysis of pain symptoms, flexibility and hydroxyproline concentration in individuals with low back pain submitted to Global Postural Re-education and stretching. Pain Management 2020;10(3):167-77. - PubMed
Mazloum 2016 {published data only}
    1. Mazloum V, Sahebozamani M, Barati A, Nakhaee N. Comparing the effects of Pilates training and McKenzie exercises on core muscles cross-sectional area and strength in patients with chronic non-specific low back pain: a clinical trial. Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences 2016;26(143):48-61.
Mbada 2014 {published data only}
    1. Mbada CE, Ayanniyi O, Ogunlade SO, Orimolade EA, Oladiran AB, Ogundele AO. Influence of Mckenzie protocol and two modes of endurance exercises on health-related quality of life of patients with long-term mechanical low-back pain. Pan African Medical Journal 2014;17(5):1-7. - PMC - PubMed
Mbada 2019 {published data only}
    1. Mbada CE, Olaoye MI, Dada OO, Ayanniyi O, Johnson OE, Odole AC, et al. Comparative efficacy of clinic-based and telerehabilitation application of McKenzie therapy in chronic low-back pain. International Journal of Telerehabilitation 2019;11(1):41-58. - PMC - PubMed
Moncelon 2015 {published data only}
    1. Moncelon S, Otero J. Méthode McKenzie et lombalgiques chroniques avec Préférence Directionnelle. Kinesitherapie Revue 2015;15(160):31-7.
Nambi 2020 {published data only}
    1. Nambi G, Abdelbasset WK, Alqahtani BA, Alrawaili SM, Abodonya AM, Saleh AK. Isokinetic back training is more effective than core stabilization training on pain intensity and sports performances in football players with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Medicine 2020;99(21):e20418. - PMC - PubMed
Nambi 2020a {published data only}
    1. Nambi G, Abdelbasset WK, Elsayed SH, Alrawaili SM, Abodonya AM, Saleh AK, et al. Comparative effects of isokinetic training and virtual reality training on sports performances in university football players with chronic low back pain - randomized controlled study. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2020;2020:2981273. - PMC - PubMed
Nambi 2021 {published data only}
    1. Nambi G, Abdelbasset WK, Alrawaili SM, Abodonya AM, Saleh AK. Virtual reality or Isokinetic training; its effect on pain, kinesiophobia and serum stress hormones in chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Technology and Health Care 2021;29(1):155-66. - PubMed
Narouei 2020 {published data only}
    1. Narouei S, Barati AH, Akuzawa H, Talebian S, Ghiasi F, Akbari A, et al. Effects of core stabilization exercises on thickness and activity of trunk and hip muscles in subjects with nonspecific chronic low back pain. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 2020;24(4):138-46. - PubMed
Natraj 2018 {published data only}
    1. Natraj P, Anandaselvashankar A, Manikumar M, Sankara Kumaran P. Efficacy of slump stretching in combinations with conventional therapy in chronic non-radicular low back pain: a randomized control trial. Biomedicine 2018;38(3):396-403.
Neyaz 2019 {published data only}
    1. Neyaz O, Sumila L, Nanda S, Wadhwa S. Effectiveness of hatha yoga versus conventional therapeutic exercises for chronic nonspecific low-back pain. Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine 2019;25(9):938-45. - PubMed
Ning 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ning X, Wu L, Wang T, He X, Yu Y. Clinical study on five mimic-animal boxing combined with core muscular strength exercise for the treatment of nonspecific low back pain. Journal of Traditional Chinese Orthopedics and Traumatology 2015;11:25-8.
Noormohammadpour 2018 {published data only}
    1. Noormohammadpour P, Kordi M, Mansournia MA, Akbari-Fakhrabadi M, Kordi R. The role of a multi-step core stability exercise program in the treatment of nurses with chronic low back pain: a single-blinded randomized controlled trial. Asian Spine Journal 2018;12(3):490-502. - PMC - PubMed
O'Keeffe 2020 {published data only}
    1. O'Keeffe M, O'Sullivan P, Purtill H, Bargary N, O'Sullivan K. Cognitive functional therapy compared with a group-based exercise and education intervention for chronic low back pain: a multicentre randomised controlled trial (RCT). British Journal of Sports Medicine 2020;54(13):782-9. - PMC - PubMed
Oh 2020 {published data only}
    1. Oh YJ, Park SH, Lee MM. Comparison of effects of abdominal draw-in lumbar stabilization exercises with and without respiratory resistance on women with low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research 2020;26:e921295. - PMC - PubMed
Oka 2018 {published data only}
    1. Oka H, Nomura N, Asada F, Takano K, Nitta Y, Uchima Y, et al. The effect of the "One Stretch" exercise on the improvement of low back pain in Japanese nurses: a large-scale, randomized, controlled trial. Modern Rheumatology 2018;29(5):861-6. - PubMed
Oliveira 2011 {published data only}
    1. Oliveira PD, Blanco PE, Facci LM. Comparing the hydrokinesiotherapy effects with land exercises in non specific low back pain patients: randomized clinical Trial. Revista Terapia Manual 2011;9(45):470-7.
Oliveira 2020 {published data only}
    1. Oliveira Meirelles F, Oliveira Muniz Cunha JC, Silva EB. Osteopathic manipulation treatment versus therapeutic exercises in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain: a randomized, controlled and double-blind study. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2020;33(3):367-77. - PubMed
Oratsch 2019 {published data only}
    1. Oratsch C, Pipam W, Kostenberger M, Apich G, Likar R. Treatment for chronic back pain? Active multimodal, interdisciplinary pain therapy vs. physiotherapy-physical therapy for chronic back pain. Schmerz 2019;33(4):337-46. - PubMed
Owen 2020 {published data only}
    1. Owen PJ, Miller CT, Rantalainen T, Simson KJ, Connell D, Hahne AJ, et al. Exercise for the intervertebral disc: a 6-month randomised controlled trial in chronic low back pain. European Spine Journal 2020;29(8):1887-99. - PubMed
Pacrez‐de‐la‐Cruz 2017 {published data only}
    1. Pacrez-de-la-Cruz S, Puentes-Fern S, Rocamora-Pacrez P. Effectiveness of a program of Romana’s Pilates for non-specific low back pain. a pilot study. Revista Internacional de Medicina 2017;17(68):667-76.
Park 2020 {published data only}
    1. Park S, Park S, Min S, Kim CJ, Jee YS. A randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of equine simulator riding on low back pain, morphological changes, and trunk musculature in elderly women. Medicina 2020;56(11):610-24. - PMC - PubMed
Park 2020a {published data only}
    1. Park SJ, Kim YM, Yang SR. Effects of lumbar segmental stabilization exercise and respiratory exercise on the vital capacity in patients with chronic back pain. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2020;33(5):841-8. - PubMed
Patil 2018 {published data only}
    1. Patil NJ, Nagaratna R, Tekur, P, Manohar PV, Hemant B, Dhanashri P. A randomized trial comparing effect of yoga and exercises on quality of life in among nursing population with chronic low back pain. International Journal of Yoga 2018;11(3):208-14. - PMC - PubMed
Prado 2019 {published data only}
    1. Prado ERA, Meireles SM, Carvalho ACA, Mazoca MF, Motta Neto AM, Barboza Da Silva R, et al. Influence of isostretching on patients with chronic low back pain. A randomized controlled trial. Physiotherapy Theory & Practice 2019;1:1-8. - PubMed
Rabiei 2020 {published data only}
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Rahbar 2018 {published data only}
    1. Rahbar M, Salekzamani Y, Jahanjou F, Eslamian F, Niroumand A, Dolatkhah N. Effect of hippotherapy simulator on pain, disability and range of motion of the spinal column in subjects with mechanical low back pain: a randomized single-blind clinical trial. Journal of Back & Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation 2018;31(6):1183-92. - PubMed
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Rodriguez‐Romero 2019 {published data only}
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Samir 2016 {published data only}
    1. Samir SM, Zaky LA, Soliman MO. Mulligan versus Maitland mobilizations in patients with chronic low back dysfunction. International Journal of PharmTech Research 2016;9(6):92-9.
Sarker 2019 {published data only}
    1. Sarker KK, Sethi J, Mohanty U. Effect of spinal manipulation on pain sensitivity, postural sway, and health-related quality of life among patients with non-specific chronic low back pain: a randomised control trial. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 2019;13(2):YC01-5.
Sawant 2019 {published data only}
    1. Sawant RS, Shinde SB. Effect of hydrotherapy based exercises for chronic nonspecific low back pain. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy & Occupational Therapy 2019;13(1):133-8.
Schmidt 2020 {published data only}
    1. Schmidt AM, Schiøttz-Christensen B, Foster NE, Laurberg TB, Maribo T. The effect of an integrated multidisciplinary rehabilitation programme alternating inpatient interventions with home-based activities for patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2020;34(3):382-93. - PMC - PubMed
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Seo 2019 {published data only}
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Shamsi 2019 {published data only}
    1. Shamsi M, Mirzaei M, Samadzadeh S, Schuermans J. Comparing the effects of static stretching and strengthening in lengthened position on EMG activity of hamstring muscle in patients with chronic non-specific LBP having shortened muscle: a randomised controlled clinical trial. European Journal of Physiotherapy 2019;0:1-7.
Shamsi 2020 {published data only}
    1. Shamsi M, Mirzaei M, Shahsavari S, Safari A, Saeb M. Modeling the effect of static stretching and strengthening exercise in lengthened position on balance in low back pain subject with shortened hamstring: a randomized controlled clinical trial. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 2020;21(1):1-9. - PMC - PubMed
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Sipaviciene 2020 {published data only}
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    1. Surkitt LD, Ford JJ, Chan AYP, Richards MC, Slater SL, Pizzari T, et al. Effects of individualised directional preference management versus advice for reducible discogenic pain: a pre-planned secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Manual Therapy 2016;25:69-80. - PubMed
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Wahyuddin 2020 {published data only}
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Waseem 2019 {published data only}
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    1. Wattamwar RB, Nadkarni K. Effect of conventional occupational therapy and yoga in chronic low back pain. Indian Journal of Occupational Therapy 2012;44(2):1-8.
Weissenfels 2019 {published data only}
    1. Weissenfels A, Wirtz N, Dormann U, Kleinoder H, Donath L, Kohl M, et al. Comparison of whole-body electromyostimulation versus recognized back-strengthening exercise training on chronic nonspecific low back pain: a randomized controlled study. BioMed Research International 2019;2019:5745409. - PMC - PubMed
Yalfani 2020 {published data only}
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Yang 2015 {published data only}
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Yao 2020 {published data only}
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Yuan 2016 {published data only}
    1. Yuan RL, Yan B, Li GZ, Huang Z, Ma J, Liu DZ. Observation on the forward curative effect of back muscle functional exercise in the treatment of lumbar vertebra small joint synovial incarcerated. Chinese Community Doctors 2016;32(17):186-7.
Zadro 2019 {published data only}
    1. Zadro JR, Shirley D, Simic M, Mousavi SJ, Ceprnja D, Maka K, et al. Video-game-based exercises for older people with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled table trial (GAMEBACK). Physical Therapy 2019;99(1):14-27. - PubMed
Zakari 2019 {published data only}
    1. Zakari UU, Bello B, Sokumbi GO, Yakasai AM, Danazumi MS. Comparison of the effects of positional release therapy and lumbar stabilization exercises in the management of chronic mechanical low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Critical Reviews in Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine 2019;31(4):321-32.
Zarzycka 2018 {published data only}
    1. Zarzycka K, Zarzycki M, Kolasa P. Comparative evaluation of rehabilitation systems for patients with chronic lumbar overload syndrome. Aktualnosci Neurologiczne 2018;18(1):5-13.
Zhang 2019a {published data only}
    1. Zhang X, Bi X, Shao J, Sun D, Zhang C, Liu Z. Curative effects on muscle function and proprioception in patients with chronic lumbar disk herniation using isokinetic trunk muscle strength training. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine 2019;12(4):4311-20.
Zhongliang 2018 {published data only}
    1. Zhongliang Z, Xiaojie Y, Bangzhong L, Min Z, Liya Z, Dongdong Y. Spinal mechanical impulsive manipulation versus conventional physiotherapy for chronic low back pain: differences in range of lumbar motion and trunk muscle strength. Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research 2018;22(35):5637-41.
Zou 2019a {published data only}
    1. Zou L, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Tian X, Xiao T, Liu X, et al. The effects of tai chi chuan versus core stability training on lower-limb neuromuscular function in aging individuals with non-specific chronic lower back pain. Medicina 2019;55(3):60-70. - PMC - PubMed

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