Use of Industrial Wastes as Sustainable Nutrient Sources for Bacterial Cellulose (BC) Production: Mechanism, Advances, and Future Perspectives

Abstract

A novel nanomaterial, bacterial cellulose (BC), has become noteworthy recently due to its better physicochemical properties and biodegradability, which are desirable for various applications. Since cost is a significant limitation in the production of cellulose, current efforts are focused on the use of industrial waste as a cost-effective substrate for the synthesis of BC or microbial cellulose. The utilization of industrial wastes and byproduct streams as fermentation media could improve the cost-competitiveness of BC production. This paper examines the feasibility of using typical wastes generated by industry sectors as sources of nutrients (carbon and nitrogen) for the commercial-scale production of BC. Numerous preliminary findings in the literature data have revealed the potential to yield a high concentration of BC from various industrial wastes. These findings indicated the need to optimize culture conditions, aiming for improved large-scale production of BC from waste streams.

Keywords: bacterial cellulose (BC); biopolymer; carbon source; industrial waste; microbial cellulose; nitrogen source.

Figure 4

Advanced application of bacterial cellulose (BC). (a) A never-dried microbial cellulose membrane shows remarkable conformability to the various body contours, maintains a moist environment, and significantly reduces pain [74]. (b) A doll face was scanned, and a 4.5 wt % Flink containing A. xylinum was deposited onto the face using a custom-built 3D printer. In situ cellulose growth leads to the formation of a cellulose-reinforced hydrogel that, after removal of all biological residues, can serve as a skin transplant [75]. (c) Luminescence of an organic light-emitting diode deposited onto a flexible, low-CTE, and optically transparent cellulose nanocomposite [76]. (d) Screen-printed electrodes made on BC substrate [77]. (e) BC paper [78]. (f) Bone regeneration efficacy of the scaffolds [79]. (g) Microbial cellulose dressing applied on a wounded hand [80]. (h) 3D Bioprinting Human Chondrocytes with nanocellulose−alginate bioink [81]. (i) Flexible freestanding nanocellulose paper-based Si Anodes for Lithium-ion batteries [82]. (j) Cellulose acetate/poly lactic acid coaxial wet-electrospun scaffold containing citalopram-loaded gelatin nanocarriers for neural tissue [83]. (k) Artificial Bacterial cellulose ligament or tendons [84].

Figure 1

Schematic of the molecular structure of bacterial cellulose and its bound and free water [23].

Figure 2

Optical images (a,b), scanning electron microscope (SEM) images (c) of BC samples and ultrastructural transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images (d) of BC samples [24,27,28].

Figure 3

Number of publications on bacterial cellulose since 2000–2020 (Scopus search engine system, the search term “bacterial cellulose”).

Figure 5

Experimental images of (A) clay-needle template with needles at the centre, (B) growing BC scaffolds with aid from clay-needle templates in static cultures, and (C) clean BC pellicles with channels to be an effective hydrogel-like material for different tissue engineering applications. (D) Enlargement of the channel area in (C). The channel diameter was approximately 250 μm and the inter-distance approximately 1 mm. (E) Scanning electron images (SEM) of channeled area in (C). (F) Cross-section of channels [85].

Figure 6

(A) Network structure of ribbon-shaped fibrils of BC, (B) natural biomaterial of BC, and (C) 3D-shaped BC for bone tissue engineering [87,89].

Figure 7

Schematic diagram to explain the approach for bacterial cellulose matrices production [78].

Figure 8

Major pathways to the cellulose [112].

Figure 9

Schematic illustrations of pre-treatment of wastes for BC biosynthesis [184].

Figure 10

Representation of cellulose chains formation in microbial cells, and formation of micro- and macro fibrils, bundles, and ribbons [188].

Figure 11

Schematic overview of Bacterial Cellulose (BC) production from different industrial wastes.