Trends in the Regulation of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): A Scoping Review

Abstract

Products containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been used for decades in industrial and consumer products. These compounds are persistent in the environment, bioaccumulative, and some are toxic to humans and other animals. Since the early 2000s, laws, policies, and regulations have been implemented to reduce the prevalence of PFAS in the environment and exposures to PFAS. We conducted a scoping literature review to identify how PFAS are regulated internationally, at the U.S. national level, and at the U.S. state level, as well as drivers of and challenges to implementing PFAS regulations in the U.S. This review captured peer-reviewed scientific literature (e.g., PubMed), grey literature databases (e.g., SciTech Premium Collection), Google searches, and targeted websites (e.g., state health department websites). We identified 454 relevant documents, of which 61 discussed the non-U.S. PFAS policy, 214 discussed the U.S. national-level PFAS policy, and 181 discussed the U.S. state-level PFAS policy. The drivers of and challenges to PFAS regulation were identified through qualitative analysis. The drivers of PFAS policy identified were political support for regulation, social awareness of PFAS, economic resource availability, and compelling scientific evidence. The challenges to implementing PFAS regulations were political limitations, economic challenges, unclear scientific evidence, and practical challenges. The implications for PFAS policy makers and other stakeholders are discussed.

Keywords: PFAS; analysis; environment; exposure; policy; regulation.

Figure 1

Overview of the major families of PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), including: PFAAs (perfluoroalkyl acids), 8 or more carbon PFCAs (perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids/perfluoroalkyl carboxylates), PFOA (perfluorooctanic acid), 6 or more carbon PFSAs (perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids/perfluoroalkyl sulfonates), PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate/perfluorooctane sulfonic acid), 6 or fewer carbon PFCAs (perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids/perfluoroalkyl carboxylates), PFHxA (perfluorohexanoate/perfluorohexanoic acid), 5 or fewer carbon PFSAs (perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids/perfluoroalkyl sulfonates), and PFBS (perfluorobutane sulfonate/Perfluorobutane sulfonic acid).

Figure 2

Overview of common pathways through which PFAS enter the environment. Originally published by the Government Accountability Office in report GAO-21-37: ‘Man-Made Chemicals and Potential Health Risks, EPA Has Completed Some Regulatory-Related Actions for PFAS’.

Figure 3

Blood Levels of the Most Common PFAS in People in the United States from 2000–2014. Originally published in Fourth Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, Updated Tables, (January 2017). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This figure is freely available on the agency’s website and its use does not imply endorsement of this manuscript by CDC, HHS, or the United States Government. PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFOA (perfluorooctanic acid), PFHxS (perfluorohexane sulfonic acid), PFNA (perfluorononanoic acid).