Antioxidant Effects of Protocatechuic Acid and Protocatechuic Aldehyde: Old Wine in a New Bottle

Abstract

Phenolic compounds are naturally present as secondary metabolites in plant-based sources such as fruits, vegetables, and spices. They have received considerable attention for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic properties for protection against many chronic disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. They are categorized into various groups based on their chemical structure and include phenolic acids, flavonoids, curcumins, tannins, and quinolones. Their structural variations contribute to their specific beneficial effects on human health. The antioxidant property of phenolic compounds protects against oxidative stress by up-regulation of endogenous antioxidants, scavenging free radicals, and anti-apoptotic activity. Protocatechuic acid (PCA; 3,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid) and protocatechuic aldehyde (PAL; 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde) are naturally occurring polyphenols found in vegetables, fruits, and herbs. PCA and PAL are the primary metabolites of anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins, which have been shown to possess pharmacological actions including antioxidant activity in vitro and in vivo. This review aims to explore the therapeutic potential of PCA and PAL by comprehensively summarizing their pharmacological properties reported to date, with an emphasis on their mechanisms of action and biological properties.

Figure 1

Chemical structure of protocatechuic acid (PCA) and protocatechuic aldehyde (PAL).

Figure 2

Anthocyanins metabolism into PCA and PAL. A generic anthocyanin with a glucoside moiety is pictured. Parent anthocyanin species are first converted to an aglycon (anthocyanidin) form by hydrolysis of glycoside linkages in the small intestine. PAL could be oxidized to PCA in the intestine.

Figure 3

Antioxidant mechanisms of PCA and PAL.