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Review
. 2021 Nov 21;18(22):12226.
doi: 10.3390/ijerph182212226.

Interactions with Arsenic: Mechanisms of Toxicity and Cellular Resistance in Eukaryotic Microorganisms

Patricia De Francisco  1 , Ana Martín-González  2 , Daniel Rodriguez-Martín  3 , Silvia Díaz  2
Affiliations
Review

Interactions with Arsenic: Mechanisms of Toxicity and Cellular Resistance in Eukaryotic Microorganisms

Patricia De Francisco et al. Int J Environ Res Public Health. .

Abstract

Arsenic (As) is quite an abundant metalloid, with ancient origin and ubiquitous distribution, which represents a severe environmental risk and a global problem for public health. Microbial exposure to As compounds in the environment has happened since the beginning of time. Selective pressure has induced the evolution of various genetic systems conferring useful capacities in many microorganisms to detoxify and even use arsenic, as an energy source. This review summarizes the microbial impact of the As biogeochemical cycle. Moreover, the poorly known adverse effects of this element on eukaryotic microbes, as well as the As uptake and detoxification mechanisms developed by yeast and protists, are discussed. Finally, an outlook of As microbial remediation makes evident the knowledge gaps and the necessity of new approaches to mitigate this environmental challenge.

Keywords: arsenic; microalgae; resistance mechanisms; toxicity; yeasts.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Main chemical forms of inorganic and organic arsenicals.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Sources of arsenicals in the biosphere.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Microbial transformations in the biogeochemical cycle of Arsenic. (CH3)3As: trimethylarsine. Mas: methyl arsenic. Figure inspired from those published by Yüksel et al. and Bhattacharya and Ghosh [86,87].
Figure 4
Figure 4
Ultrastructural damage in Chlamydomonas acidophila exposed to As(III) 5mM. Note the EPS secretion (arrow), stigma alteration, starch accumulation, and vacuolization. (A) General view of a vegetative cell (×20k). (B) Detail of a cell, showing mitochondrion degeneration (arrow), vacuoles (×50k). Note the electron-dense content of the vacuoles (V) that corresponds to As (TEM-EDX analysis). Mit: mitochondrion, St: stigma, S: starch, EPS: Extracellular Polymeric Substances.
Figure 5
Figure 5
(A) Detail of the cytoplasm from a vegetative cell of the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila, exposed to As(V), 30 μM, 24 h, showing mitochondrial degeneration by mitophagy. Degraded mitochondria (*). Arrow points to an advanced autophagosome (×25k). (B) Detail of an early mitoauto-phagosome (×25k).
Figure 6
Figure 6
Uptake and resistance mechanisms to As in yeasts. MMAs(III): mononomethylarsonic acid. GSH: glutathione. As(GS)3: arsenic triglutathione.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Uptake and resistance mechanisms to As in microalgae. MTs: metallothioneins. PCs: phytochelatins.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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