Area-Based Geocoding: An Approach to Exposure Assessment Incorporating Positional Uncertainty

Abstract

While the spatial resolution of exposure surfaces has greatly improved, our ability to locate people in space remains a limiting factor in accurate exposure assessment. In this case-control study, two approaches to geocoding participant locations were used to study the impact of geocoding uncertainty on the estimation of ambient pesticide exposure and breast cancer risk among women living in California's Central Valley. Residential and occupational histories were collected and geocoded using a traditional point-based method along with a novel area-based method. The standard approach to geocoding uses centroid points to represent all geocoded locations, and is unable to adapt exposure areas based on geocode quality, except through the exclusion of low-certainty locations. In contrast, area-based geocoding retains the complete area to which an address matched (the same area from which the centroid is returned), and therefore maintains the appropriate level of precision when it comes to assessing exposure by geography. Incorporating the total potential exposure area for each geocoded location resulted in different exposure classifications and resulting odds ratio estimates than estimates derived from the centroids of those same areas (using a traditional point-based geocoder). The direction and magnitude of these differences varied by pesticide, but in all cases odds ratios differed by at least 6% and up to 35%. These findings demonstrate the importance of geocoding in exposure estimation and suggest it is important to consider geocode certainty and quality throughout exposure assessment, rather than simply using the best available point geocodes.

Keywords: breast cancer; exposure assessment; geocoding; pesticides; positional uncertainty.

Figure 1

Examples of low‐certainty point and area‐based geocoding results near the city of Fresno, overlaid on Public Land Survey System (PLSS) based pesticide exposure for 1 year (2003). Geocoded location boundaries labeled with a “Z” represent ZCTA matches, those labeled with a “C” represent city matches. The smallest ZCTA area shown here is 27 km², and the largest ZCTA area shown is 482 km².