Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Risk Factors, Molecular Alterations, Immunology and Peptide Vaccines

Abstract

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) arises from the epithelial lining of the oral cavity, hypopharynx, oropharynx, and larynx. There are several potential risk factors that cause the generation of HNSCC, including cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, betel quid chewing, inadequate nutrition, poor oral hygiene, HPV and Epstein-Barr virus, and Candida albicans infections. HNSCC has causative links to both environmental factors and genetic mutations, with the latter playing a more critical role in cancer progression. These molecular changes to epithelial cells include the inactivation of cancer suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes overexpression, resulting in tumour cell proliferation and distant metastasis. HNSCC patients have impaired dendritic cell (DC) and natural killer (NK) cell functions, increased production of higher immune-suppressive molecules, loss of regulatory T cells and co-stimulatory molecules and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class Ι molecules, lower number of lymphocyte subsets, and a poor response to antigen-presenting cells. At present, the standard treatment modalities for HNSCC patients include surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and combinatorial therapy. Despite advances in the development of novel treatment modalities over the last few decades, survival rates of HNSCC patients have not increased. To establish effective immunotherapies, a greater understanding of interactions between the immune system and HNSCC is required, and there is a particular need to develop novel therapeutic options. A therapeutic cancer vaccine has been proposed as a promising method to improve outcome by inducing a powerful adaptive immune response that leads to cancer cell elimination. Compared with other vaccines, peptide cancer vaccines are more robust and specific. In the past few years, there have been remarkable achievements in peptide-based vaccines for HNSCC patients. Here, we summarize the latest molecular alterations in HNSCC, explore the immune response to HNSCC, and discuss the latest developments in peptide-based cancer vaccine strategies. This review highlights areas for valuable future research focusing on peptide-based cancer vaccines.

Keywords: Cancer immunotherapy; Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma; Immunology; Peptide-based vaccines; Tumour vaccines.

Fig. 1

Summary of potential risk factors that cause the generation of HNSCC

Fig. 2

Therapeutic cancer peptide vaccines. The aim of cancer vaccines is to stimulate the body’s immune system to cure cancer and prevent them from spreading. After vaccine uptake, antigens will be captured and processed by antigen presenting cells. Then, antigen will be delivered through TCR/MHC complex to CD8⁺ T cells. CD8⁺ T cells could differentiate into cytotoxic T cells, which are able to directly kill cancer cells. TCR T cell receptor, MHC major histocompatibility complex