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. 2022 Jan;112(1):154-164.
doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2021.306541.

Racial/Ethnic and Age Differences in the Direct and Indirect Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on US Mortality

Lauren C Zalla  1 , Grace E Mulholland  1 , Lindsey M Filiatreau  1 , Jessie K Edwards  1
Affiliations

Racial/Ethnic and Age Differences in the Direct and Indirect Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on US Mortality

Lauren C Zalla et al. Am J Public Health. 2022 Jan.

Abstract

Objectives. To estimate the direct and indirect effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on overall, race/ethnicity‒specific, and age-specific mortality in 2020 in the United States. Methods. Using surveillance data, we modeled expected mortality, compared it to observed mortality, and estimated the share of "excess" mortality that was indirectly attributable to the pandemic versus directly attributed to COVID-19. We present absolute risks and proportions of total pandemic-related mortality, stratified by race/ethnicity and age. Results. We observed 16.6 excess deaths per 10 000 US population in 2020; 84% were directly attributed to COVID-19. The indirect effects of the pandemic accounted for 16% of excess mortality, with proportions as low as 0% among adults aged 85 years and older and more than 60% among those aged 15 to 44 years. Indirect causes accounted for a higher proportion of excess mortality among racially minoritized groups (e.g., 32% among Black Americans and 23% among Native Americans) compared with White Americans (11%). Conclusions. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on mortality and health disparities are underestimated when only deaths directly attributed to COVID-19 are considered. An equitable public health response to the pandemic should also consider its indirect effects on mortality. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(1):154-164. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306541).

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Figures

FIGURE 1—
FIGURE 1—
US Excess Mortality Directly Attributed to COVID-19 and From All Other Causes in 2020
FIGURE 2—
FIGURE 2—
US Excess Mortality Directly Attributed to COVID-19 and From All Other Causes in 2020, by Race/Ethnicity
FIGURE 3—
FIGURE 3—
US Excess Mortality Directly Attributed to COVID-19 and From All Other Causes in 2020, by Age Group
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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