A Comprehensive Review of the Coffee Leaf Miner Leucoptera coffeella (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae)-A Major Pest for the Coffee Crop in Brazil and Others Neotropical Countries

Abstract

The coffee leaf miner (CLM) Leucoptera coffeella moth is a major threat to coffee production. Insect damage is related to the feeding behavior of the larvae on the leaf. During the immature life stages, the insect feeds in the mesophyll triggering necrosis and causing loss of photosynthetic capacity, defoliation and significant yield loss to coffee crops. Chemical control is used to support the coffee production chain, though market requirements move toward conscious consumption claiming for more sustainable methods. In this overview, we discuss aspects about the CLM concerning biology, history, geographical distribution, economic impacts, and the most relevant control strategies in progress. Insights to develop an integrated approach for a safer and eco-friendly control of the CLM are discussed here, including bio-extracts, nanotechnology, pheromones, and tolerant cultivars.

Keywords: CLM; biological control; biopesticide; chemical control; cultivar; life cycle; resistance.

Figure 1

Presence of L. coffeella in: (a) The world map, showing producing countries highlighted in red: North and Central America: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago; South America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela; Africa: Reunion, Mauritius, Madagascar, Uganda, Kenya, Congo, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Rwanda; Asia: Saudi Arabia and Sri Lanka, and (b) Brazil, highlighting in yellow the affected producing states: RO = Rondônia, MT = Mato Grosso, PA = Pará, GO = Goiás, DF = Distrito Federal, BA = Bahia, MG = Minas Gerais, ES = Espírito Santo, SP = São Paulo, RJ = Rio de Janeiro, PR = Paraná, SC = Santa Catarina.

Figure 2

L. coffeella life stages from egg to adult. After hatching the egg, (a) the larvae development is divided into four instars: L1 (b), L2 (c), L3 (d), and L4 (e). The last instar forms a cocoon and turns into pupa (f). The adult emerges (g) from the pupa to mate. Eggs are laid over the adaxial side of the coffee leaf and the cycle restarts. Temperature rising accelerates and shortens the cycle span time, as detailed.

Figure 3

L. coffeella egg hatching and mine progression: (a) Unhatched eggs have a translucent structure, the arrow indicates a freshly oviposited egg; (b) after hatching, the eggshell becomes darker (white arrow) and the larva penetrates the leaf under the egg and starts feeding, forming a light green mine (black arrow); (c) enlargement of the mine. The black arrow indicates the dark color of the mine due to residues left behind by the larva.

Figure 4

Immature stages of L. coffeella. (a) Ventral view of a fourth instar larva. Arrow indicates proleg; (b) flat head in front view; (c) chewing mouthpiece; (d) crochets (arrow) located in proleg. Morphology details to distinguish the immature stages are described in the text; (e) pupa’s sea cocoon; (f) pupae’s dorsal (a), and ventral (b) shapes.

Figure 5

L. coffeella adults (a) perched on coffee leaf; (b) male seen by ventral view, with white scales all over the body; (c) closed caption of the wings apex from dorsal view to show details: black circle surrounded by yellow bristles.

Figure 6

Damage to coffee leaf caused by the CLM larvae. (a) Initial mine formation; (b) mine developed, with large necrotic area; (c) larvae inside the mine; (d) leaf with impaired photosynthetic surface; (e) coffee defoliation.

Figure 7

Map of the Brazilian territory indicating the coffee producing states (yellow) and the Cerrado biome delimited in green.

Figure 8

Main chemical products to control the CLM registered at the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply (MAPA), to control L. coffeella, (Supplementary Table S1) categorized by their action mode in squares with different colors: green—insecticides that affect the growth and the development; blue—insecticides that affect the nervous and the muscular system; grey—action modes not determined. The action mode is categorized by numbers, showing the specific action site of the product.