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Review
. 2021 Nov 29;10(12):2629.
doi: 10.3390/plants10122629.

Improving the Health-Benefits of Kales (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala DC) through the Application of Controlled Abiotic Stresses: A Review

Erika Ortega-Hernández  1 , Marilena Antunes-Ricardo  1 , Daniel A Jacobo-Velázquez  2
Affiliations
Review

Improving the Health-Benefits of Kales (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala DC) through the Application of Controlled Abiotic Stresses: A Review

Erika Ortega-Hernández et al. Plants (Basel). .

Abstract

Kale (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala DC) is a popular cruciferous vegetable originating from Central Asia, and is well known for its abundant bioactive compounds. This review discusses the main kale phytochemicals and emphasizes molecules of nutraceutical interest, including phenolics, carotenoids, and glucosinolates. The preventive and therapeutic properties of kale against chronic and degenerative diseases are highlighted according to the most recent in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies reported. Likewise, it is well known that the application of controlled abiotic stresses can be used as an effective tool to increase the content of phytochemicals with health-promoting properties. In this context, the effect of different abiotic stresses (saline, exogenous phytohormones, drought, temperature, and radiation) on the accumulation of secondary metabolites in kale is also presented. The information reviewed in this article can be used as a starting point to further validate through bioassays the effects of abiotically stressed kale on the prevention and treatment of chronic and degenerative diseases.

Keywords: carotenoids; controlled abiotic stresses; glucosinolates; health-promoting properties; isothiocyanates; kale; nutraceuticals; phenolic compounds; secondary metabolism; superfood.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Basic chemical structure of glucosinolates. The basic structure of glucosinolates comprises a thioglucose residue and a sulfate group bound to a central carbon, along with a variable aglycone. Figure created with BioRender.com (accessed on 20 October 2021).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Regulatory mechanism of sulforaphane Keap1-Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway and induction phase II metabolic enzyme expression. Under normal circumstances, Nrf2 binds to Keap1 in the cytoplasm and undergoes ubiquitin-mediated degradation. Under SFN treatment or ROS attack, Nrf2 is activated though the MAPK, PIK3, and PKC signaling pathways, and translocated to the nucleus, where it binds to the promoter ARE region of the target genes and activates the expression of phase II metabolic enzymes. ARE: Antioxidant response element; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase; PI3K: Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PKC: Protein kinase C; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SFN: Sulforaphane; sMaf: small Maf transcription factors; GST: Glutathione S-transferase; GR: Glutathione reductase; AR: Aldehyde reductase; UGT: Uridine 5′-diphospho (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferase; NQO: NAD[P]H:quinone oxidoreductase [38]. Figure created with BioRender.com (accessed on 20 October 2021).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Scheme of main steps in selenium (Se) metabolism. SULTR: sulfate transporter; ATPS: ATP sulfurylase; APR: APS reductase; SiR: sulfite reductase; OAS: O-Acetyl Serine. OPH: O-phosphohomoserine; CBL: cystathione beta-lyase; MMT: S-adenosyl-L-Met:Met-S-methyltransferase; CGS: cystathione-c-synthase. Figure created with BioRender.com (accessed on 20 October 2021).
Figure 4
Figure 4
General mechanisms and functions in methyl jasmonate (MeJA) stress tolerance of plants. Figure created with BioRender.com (accessed on 20 October 2021).
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