Early life adversity and males: Biology, behavior, and implications for fathers' parenting

Abstract

Fathers have an important and unique influence on child development, but influences on fathers' parenting have been vastly understudied in the scientific literature. In particular, very little empirical research exists on the effects of early life adversity (ELA; e.g. childhood maltreatment, parental separation) on later parenting among fathers. In this review, we draw from both the human and non-human animal literature to examine the effects of ELA, specifically among males, in the following areas: 1) neurobiology and neurocognitive functioning, 2) hormones and hormone receptors, 3) gene-environment interactions and epigenetics, and 4) behavior and development. Based on these findings, we present a conceptual model to describe the biological and behavioral pathways through which exposure to ELA may influence parenting among males, with a goal of guiding future research and intervention development in this area. Empirical studies are needed to improve understanding of the relationship between ELA and father's parenting, inform the development of paternal and biparental interventions, and prevent intergenerational transmission of ELA.

Keywords: Adverse Childhood Experiences; Fathers; Parenting; Parents; Paternal behavior.

Figure 1. Potential Biological and Behavioral Influences on Parenting among Males who Experienced Early Life Adversity

Note: The effects of early life adversity vary based on individual circumstances, including the type, timing, and severity of adversity experienced and the presence of protective factors. Fathers are also situated within a dynamic, transactional context which is influenced by the current family-, community-, and societal-level environment.