Advances in Thymidine Kinase 2 Deficiency: Clinical Aspects, Translational Progress, and Emerging Therapies

Abstract

Defects in the replication, maintenance, and repair of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) constitute a growing and genetically heterogeneous group of mitochondrial disorders. Multiple genes participate in these processes, including thymidine kinase 2 (TK2) encoding the mitochondrial matrix protein TK2, a critical component of the mitochondrial nucleotide salvage pathway. TK2 deficiency (TK2d) causes mtDNA depletion, multiple deletions, or both, which manifest predominantly as mitochondrial myopathy. A wide clinical spectrum phenotype includes a severe, rapidly progressive, early onset form (median survival: < 2 years); a less severe childhood-onset form; and a late-onset form with a variably slower rate of progression. Clinical presentation typically includes progressive weakness of limb, neck, facial, oropharyngeal, and respiratory muscle, whereas limb myopathy with ptosis, ophthalmoparesis, and respiratory involvement is more common in the late-onset form. Deoxynucleoside monophosphates and deoxynucleosides that can bypass the TK2 enzyme defect have been assessed in a mouse model, as well as under open-label compassionate use (expanded access) in TK2d patients, indicating clinical efficacy with a favorable side-effect profile. This treatment is currently undergoing testing in clinical trials intended to support approval in the US and European Union (EU). In the early expanded access program, growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) appears to be a useful biomarker that correlates with therapeutic response. With the advent of a specific treatment and given the high morbidity and mortality associated with TK2d, clinicians need to know how to recognize and diagnose this disorder. Here, we summarize translational research about this rare condition emphasizing clinical aspects.

Keywords: DNA; Mitochondrial myopathies; deoxycytidine; mitochondrial; mitochondrial diseases; thymidine.

Fig. 1

Spectrum of TK2d Clinical Phenotypes and mtDNA Alterations. C, control; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; nDNA, nuclear DNA; Pt, patient; y, years. Varying onset and rates of progression in TK2d are indicated by the spectrum of orange hues. Early and childhood-onset cases characterized by mtDNA depletion are associated with a rapidly progressing, severe myopathy (as represented by the darker orange color). Multiple mtDNA deletions are observed in late-onset cases and patients with this form typically exhibit a slower progressing, yet still debilitating form of TK2d (noted as a progressive change in orange).