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Review
. 2022 Jan 20;11(3):524.
doi: 10.3390/jcm11030524.

Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: Involvement and Interactions between Respiratory, Cardiovascular and Nervous Systems

Valeria Visco  1 , Carolina Vitale  1 , Antonella Rispoli  1 , Carmine Izzo  1 , Nicola Virtuoso  2 , Germano Junior Ferruzzi  1 , Mario Santopietro  1 , Americo Melfi  2 , Maria Rosaria Rusciano  1 , Angelantonio Maglio  1 , Paola Di Pietro  1 , Albino Carrizzo  1   3 , Gennaro Galasso  1 , Alessandro Vatrella  1 , Carmine Vecchione  1   3 , Michele Ciccarelli  1
Affiliations
Review

Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: Involvement and Interactions between Respiratory, Cardiovascular and Nervous Systems

Valeria Visco et al. J Clin Med. .

Abstract

Though the acute effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been extensively reported, the long-term effects are less well described. Specifically, while clinicians endure to battle COVID-19, we also need to develop broad strategies to manage post-COVID-19 symptoms and encourage those affected to seek suitable care. This review addresses the possible involvement of the lung, heart and brain in post-viral syndromes and describes suggested management of post-COVID-19 syndrome. Post-COVID-19 respiratory manifestations comprise coughing and shortness of breath. Furthermore, arrhythmias, palpitations, hypotension, increased heart rate, venous thromboembolic diseases, myocarditis and acute heart failure are usual cardiovascular events. Among neurological manifestations, headache, peripheral neuropathy symptoms, memory issues, lack of concentration and sleep disorders are most commonly observed with varying frequencies. Finally, mental health issues affecting mental abilities and mood fluctuations, namely anxiety and depression, are frequently seen. Finally, long COVID is a complex syndrome with protracted heterogeneous symptoms, and patients who experience post-COVID-19 sequelae require personalized treatment as well as ongoing support.

Keywords: clinical manifestations; long COVID; long-term COVID-19; pandemic; post-COVID-19 syndrome; sequelae; “long hauler” syndrome.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
COVID-19 cardiovascular involvement.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Cardiac imaging techniques’ main findings in post-COVID-19 syndrome. FAC: Fractional Area Change; IVC: Inferior Vena Cava; LGE: Late Gadolinium Enhancement; LV: Left Ventricular; LVEF: Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction; PASP: Pulmonary Artery Systolic Pressure; RVS’: TDI of Tricuspid Annulus; TAPSE: Tricuspid Annular Plane Systolic Excursion.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Mechanism of nervous system damage in post-COVID-19 syndrome.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Management of post-COVID-19 syndrome. BNP: Brain Natriuretic Peptide; CMR: Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance; EKG: Electrocardiogram; LV: Left Ventricular.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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