Zingiber officinale var. rubrum: Red Ginger's Medicinal Uses

Abstract

Zingiber officinale var. rubrum (red ginger) is widely used in traditional medicine in Asia. Unlike other gingers, it is not used as a spice in cuisines. To date, a total of 169 chemical constituents have been reported from red ginger. The constituents include vanilloids, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, flavonoids, amino acids, etc. Red ginger has many therapeutic roles in various diseases, including inflammatory diseases, vomiting, rubella, atherosclerosis, tuberculosis, growth disorders, and cancer. Scientific evidence suggests that red ginger exhibits immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, antihyperlipidemic, antihyperuricemic, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities. These biological activities are the underlying causes of red ginger's therapeutic benefits. In addition, there have been few reports on adverse side effects of red ginger. This review aims to provide insights in terms the bioactive constituents and their biosynthesis, biological activities, molecular mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, and qualitative and quantitative analysis of red ginger.

Keywords: Zingiber officinale var. rubrum; analysis; bioactive constituents; biological activities; biosynthesis; molecular mechanisms; pharmacokinetics; red ginger.

Figure 1

Photographs of (A) Red ginger (Zingiber officinale var. rubrum), (B) common ginger, and (C) whole plant of Zingiber officinale var. rubrum.

Figure 2

Biosynthetic scheme of ginger pungent compounds [28,29]. The enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathway to gingerols in ginger are as follows: PAL = Phenylalanine ammonialyase; C4H = cinnamate 4-hydroxylase; 4CL = 4-coumarate: CoA ligase; CST = p-coumaroyl shikimate transferase; CS3H = p-coumaroyl 5-O-shikimate 3-hydroxylase; OMT = O-methyltransferase; CCOMT = caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase.

Figure 3

Red ginger inhibits cancer progression, angiogenesis, and metastasis [88].

Figure 4

The molecular mechanisms involved in anticancer activity (↓ = downregulation/inhibition, ↑ = upregulation).

Figure 5

The mechanism of action or red ginger in antihyperlipidemic, antihypertensive, and antihypercholesterolemic activities.