Recent Progress in Rapid Determination of Mycotoxins Based on Emerging Biorecognition Molecules: A Review

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species, which pose significant risk to humans and livestock. The mycotoxins which are produced from Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium are considered most important and therefore regulated in food- and feedstuffs. Analyses are predominantly performed by official laboratory methods in centralized labs by expert technicians. There is an urgent demand for new low-cost, easy-to-use, and portable analytical devices for rapid on-site determination. Most significant advances were realized in the field bioanalytical techniques based on molecular recognition. This review aims to discuss recent progress in the generation of native biomolecules and new bioinspired materials towards mycotoxins for the development of reliable bioreceptor-based analytical methods. After brief presentation of basic knowledge regarding characteristics of most important mycotoxins, the generation, benefits, and limitations of present and emerging biorecognition molecules, such as polyclonal (pAb), monoclonal (mAb), recombinant antibodies (rAb), aptamers, short peptides, and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), are discussed. Hereinafter, the use of binders in different areas of application, including sample preparation, microplate- and tube-based assays, lateral flow devices, and biosensors, is highlighted. Special focus, on a global scale, is placed on commercial availability of single receptor molecules, test-kits, and biosensor platforms using multiplexed bead-based suspension assays and planar biochip arrays. Future outlook is given with special emphasis on new challenges, such as increasing use of rAb based on synthetic and naïve antibody libraries to renounce animal immunization, multiple-analyte test-kits and high-throughput multiplexing, and determination of masked mycotoxins, including stereoisomeric degradation products.

Keywords: antibodies; aptamers; biosensor; lateral flow assay; microplate assay; molecularly imprinted polymers; multiplexing; mycotoxins; rapid tests; short peptides.

Figure 6

(a) Schematic illustration of DLS-dcELISA method combined with H₂O₂-mediated tyramine signal amplification system. (b) Scheme of green ELISA based on SSB-assisted aptamer. (c) Scheme of the competitive ULISA for the detection of ZEN. (d) Scheme of molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticle-based assay for vancomycin determination. Reproduced with permission from [266,284,294,297].

Figure 7

(a) Scheme of polydopamine-coated gold nanoparticles-based lateral flow immunoassay for ZEN detection. (b) Schematic diagram of smartphone-based GNPs and TRFMs-LFIAs for multiplex mycotoxins detection. (c) Schematic illustration of anti-idiotypic nanobody-based TRFICA for AFB1 and ZEN. (d) Scheme of aptamer-based lateral flow test strip for ZEN.Reproduced with permission from [310,322,323,329].

Figure 8

(a) Scheme of the amplified impedimetric immunosensor for OTA detection. (b) Scheme of electrochemical immunosensor for AFB1 detection based on specific peptide. (c) Scheme of fluorescent DNA hydrogel aptasensor for the detection of OTA. (d) Scheme of SeS₂-loaded Co MOF with Au@PANI-comprised electroanalytical MIP-based sensor for PAT. Reproduced with permission from [205,345,364,399].

Figure 1

Schematic illustration of mycotoxins recognition elements and their application.

Figure 2

Schematic diagram of antibody structure. Abbreviations: Fab, antigen binding fragment; scFv, single-chain variable fragment; sdAb, single-domain antibody; VHH, variable domain of heavy chain of HCAb; vNAR, variable domain of new antigen receptors.

Figure 3

Selection of specific aptamers by SELEX technology.

Figure 4

Specific peptide screening by phage display technology.

Figure 5

Synthesis procedure of specific MIP.

Figure 9

Numbers of publications on mycotoxins determination based on various recognition elements. Data were obtained in Web of Science until 3 December 2021.