New insights on commemoration of the dead through mortuary and architectural use of pigments at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Turkey

Abstract

The cultural use of pigments in human societies is associated with ritual activities and the creation of social memory. Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Turkey, 7100-5950 cal BC) provides a unique case study for the exploration of links between pigments in burials, demographic data and colourants in contemporary architectural contexts. This study presents the first combined analysis of funerary and architectural evidence of pigment use in Neolithic Anatolia and discusses the possible social processes underlying the observed statistical patterns. Results reveal that pigments were either applied directly to the deceased or included in the grave as a burial association. The most commonly used pigment was red ochre. Cinnabar was mainly applied to males and blue/green pigment was associated with females. A correlation was found between the number of buried individuals and the number of painted layers in the buildings. Mortuary practices seem to have followed specific selection processes independent of sex and age-at-death of the deceased. This study offers new insights about the social factors involved in pigment use in this community, and contributes to the interpretation of funerary practices in Neolithic Anatolia. Specifically, it suggests that visual expression, ritual performance and symbolic associations were elements of shared long-term socio-cultural practices.

Figure 1

Distribution of Çatalhöyük human remains with direct pigment traces by (a) deposition category, (b) sex and (c) age-at-death. Charts generated with Microsoft Office Excel 2016 (https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/excel).

Figure 2

Examples of funerary pigment use at Çatalhöyük. (a) In situ photograph from skeleton 32818 with cinnabar stripe and a shell with cinnabar deposited at the right shoulder (Photograph by J. Quinlan); (b) Detail of the cinnabar stripe (Photograph by M. Milella); (c) Microscopic image of the frontal bone of skeleton 22196 showing a cinnabar layer with unstained phytoliths on top (Photograph by E. Schotsmans); (d) Bone ‘applicator’ with lump of blue pigment recovered with skeleton 16308 (Photograph by J. Quinlan); (e) Unio shell ‘palette’ with cinnabar (22194.X6) (Photograph by R. Veropoulidou); (f) Individual 21884 was buried on its right side with the skeletal elements on the uppermost and left side of the skeleton more intensely stained with red pigment (Photograph by J. Quinlan); (g) Right patella of skeleton 21884 was more stained on its medial side (Photograph by E. Schotsmans); (h) The partial discolouration of the left femoral head confirms that individual 21884 was flexed and fleshed when the ochre was applied, leaving the main part of the femoral head unstained (Photography by E. Schotsmans). Figure generated with Adobe illustrator 23.0.6 (http://www.adobe.com/fr/products/illustrator.html).

Figure 3

Distribution of Çatalhöyük human remains with pigments as burial association by (a) deposition category, (b) sex and (c) age-at-death. Charts generated with Microsoft Office Excel 2016 (https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/excel).

Figure 4

(a) Diachronic distribution of the different depositional categories; (b) Number of individuals and relative percentages of individuals with direct pigment traces and with pigments as associated items by occupation period (n = number). Charts generated with Microsoft Office Excel 2016 (https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/excel).

Figure 5

(a) Microscopic image of a multi-layered plaster from building 17, the consecutive marl layers are observable, separated by red pigment or by soot (Photograph by G. Busacca); (b) Example of a monochromatic red wall painting from building 59 (Photograph by J. Quinlan); (c) Example of a wall painting with geometric motif from building 80 (Photograph by J. Quinlan). Figure generated with Adobe illustrator 23.0.6 (http://www.adobe.com/fr/products/illustrator.html).

Figure 6

(a) Summary of the linear model and the modelled relationships; (b) The relationship between primary (left panel)/tertiary (right panel) depositional contexts and the minimum number of painted wall layers. The black solid lines depict the modelled effect of primary and tertiary depositions on the painted layers; the grey area represents the 95% confidence interval of the mean predicted values. Table and graphs generated with R × 64 v4.1.0 (https://cran.r-project.org/bin/windows/base/old/4.1.0/) and combined in Adobe illustrator 23.0.6 (http://www.adobe.com/fr/products/illustrator.html).

Figure 7

Hypothesised selection process. Deposition of some individuals outside the settlement cannot be completely excluded. The deceased, deposited inside the settlement, were selected to be buried with or without pigments and associated items. There was a tendency for these primary burials to be accompanied by architectural paintings. Other individuals, either as complete bodies or loose skeletal elements, remained in the community. These circulating skeletal elements were eventually deposited in secondary or tertiary deposition contexts, which may also have been linked to the creation of architectural paintings in an indirect way (dotted line), because not all tertiary depositions were associated with the occupation of the house only. Figure generated with Adobe illustrator 23.0.6 (http://www.adobe.com/fr/products/illustrator.html).